THE
Habitable World
DESCRIBED.
Inscribed by Permission to His Royal Highness Frederick
DUKE OF YORK, &c. &c.
HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE
LONDON: Published as the Act directs, by the Author. No .
62.
Wardour Street, Soho.
1795.
THE HABITABLE WORLD DESCRIBED, OR THE PRESENT STATE OF THE PEOPLE IN ALL PARTS OF THE GLOBE, FROM NORTH TO SOUTH; SHEWING The Situation, Extent, Climate, Production, Animals, &c. &c. of the different Kingdoms and States.
Including all the New Discoveries: TOGETHER WITH The Genius, Manners, Customs, Trade, Religion, Forms of Government, &c. of the Inhabitants, and every thing respecting them, that can be either entertaining or informing to the Reader, collected from the earliest and latest Accounts of Historians and Travellers of all Nations;
With some that have never been published in this Kingdom;
And nothing advanced but on the best Authorities.
WITH A great Variety of MAPS and COPPER PLATES, engraved in a capital Style, the Subjects of which are mostly
new,
and such as have never yet been given in any English work.
BY THE REV. DR. JOHN TRUSLER.
VOL. XIX.
London:
Printed for the AUTHOR, and sold by L. LEGOUX, No. 52, Poland Street, Oxford Road, and all Booksellers.
M,DCC,XCVI.
A DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF SWITZERLAND,
CONTINUED.
CHAP. V.
Town and Canton of Friburgh.
THE canton of Friburgh contains a small portion of arable land, but abounds in pastures; and, accordingly, its principal articles of exportation consist in horned cattle, cheese, butter, and hides.
The cheese well known under the name of Gruyere, which is exported in such large quantities, is made in a chain of mountains in this canton, about ten leagues in length, and four in breadth. All the cheese, though made in the same manner, is not of the same quality; a difference, probably arising from the diversity of the soil; the same plants not growing at all heights, and the lower pastures called
gites,
being not in such high estimation for their goodness, as those in the more elevated situations.
The whole district is divided into greater or lesser farms, which the proprietors let out in leases of three or six years, at the annual rent of 16 shillings to 30 shillings, during five months for each cow, according to the nature or elevation of the ground: the lower pastures, though not of the best quality, are the dearest, because being sooner free from the snow, and later covered with it, they afford food to cattle for a longer space.
Each farmer having rented a mountain, hires from the different peasants in the canton, from 50 to 60 cows, from the 15th of May to the 8th of October: he pays from the rate of from £16, to £1136 per head; and each cow upon an average, yields from 20 to 24 quarts of milk per day, and supplies 200 pounds of cheese, during the five months. On the 18th of October, the farmer restores the cows to the different proprietors. The cattle are then pastured in the meadows, which have been twice mowed, until the 10th or 11th of November, when, on account of the snow, they are usually removed to the stables, and fed, during winter, with hay and aftergrass.
As the mountains in the canton of Friburgh, afford pasture for at least 15,000 cows, it may be estimated, that they annually supply about 30,000 hundred weight of cheese, fit for exportation; besides 2,000 or 3,000 on their return from the mountains, exclusive of a thinner sort, which is made in various parts of the canton. The cheeses fit for exportation, weigh from 40 to 60 pounds each, and are sold from £117 to £2, per hundred weight. Besides the cows which are pastured during summer in the mountains, the canton contains about 10,000, belonging to the several land-holders, which supply their families with milk.
The buildings necessary for making the cheeses, consist of a
chalet,
or cottage, which contains a room with a furnace, for the purpose of boiling the milk, a cellar where the milk is preserved, and a stable for 60 or 70 cows; near it is a kind of dairy-room, kept in an equal degree of temperature, where the cheeses are every day turned and salted. The thickness of the Vat, in which each cheese is pressed, is about four inches. The casks for exportation, contain ten cheeses, except those destined for Italy, which hold only three, in order to be conveyed by mules across the Great S.
Bernard.
The cheeses well packed up, bear transporting into the most distant countries: they ought to be kept in a damp place, and frequently washed with white wine, for the purpose of preserving them from insects. When the cows return from the mountains, a species of cream cheese is made in autumn, and even in winter; it is much esteemed, and is dearer than that of Gruyerres.
The greatest part of the salt used on these occasions, is drawn from Franche Comté; a small quantity from Lorraine and Bavaria, but its quality is much inferior. The consumption of the whole canton, for all purposes, is at least 20,000 hundred weight, of which 15,000 is drawn from Franche Comté.
A great number of mares, foals, and horned cattle are annually raised in the canton: the oxen of three or four years old, are sold in the canton of Berne, in the country of Neuchatel, and in Franche Comté. Upon an average, it may be estimated, that the canton of Friburgh annually supplies pasture for 37,000 cows and oxen.
In the whole canton of Friburgh, are seven towns, the inhabitants of which, speak a kind of patois, or corrupt medley of German and French; but in the town of Friburgh, the pure German prevails among persons of rank, that language being used in the council, the two churches, and in all public instruments.
Friburgh the capital, though not one of the most beautiful towns, is certainly one of the most picturesque and wild in Switzerland. It stands partly in a small plain, partly on bold acclivities, and on a ridge of rugged rocks, half encircled by the river Sane; it is so entirely concealed by the circumjacent hills, that the traveller scarce catches the smallest glimpse of it, until he bursts upon a view of the whole town from the overhanging eminence.
The fortifications, which consist of high stone walls and towers, inclose a circumference of about four miles; within which space the eye comprehends a singular mixture of houses, rocks, thickets, and meadows, varying instantly from wild to agreeable, from the bustle of a town to the solitude of the deepest retirement.
On all sides the descent to the town is extremely steep; in one place the streets even pass over the roofs of the houses. Many of the edifices are raised in regular gradation, like the seats of an amphitheatre; many overhang the edge of a precipice in such a manner, that on looking down, a weak head would be apt to turn giddy; and an unfortunate lover, repulsed in his suit, might instantly put an end to his pains, by taking a leap from the parlour window, without the trouble of a journey to Leucate, or to the rocks of Meillerie.
The houses of Friburgh are neat and well built, but the whole town has a dull and inanimate appearance. Among the few objects worthy of particular notice, are the cathedral, an elegant gothic edifice, erected in the latter end of the 14th century, and remarkable for the height and solidity of the tower; the town house, an ancient building, which formerly composed part of the palace belonging to the Duke of Zoeringen; and also a lime tree in the middle of the principal square. Tradition reports that this tree was instantly planted by one of the soldiers, the 22d. of June, 1477, on his return from the battle of Morat: an emblem of Swiss liberty, which took deep root on the memorable defeat of
Charles
the Bold; and thus remaining firm against the conflicts of time, has continued to spread and flourish, to the admiration and example of future ages.
The college of Jesuits, says
Addison,
is reckoned the finest in all Switzerland. There is a great deal of room in it, and several beautiful views from different parts of it. They have a collection of pictures representing most of the fathers of their order, who have been eminent for their piety or learning. Among the rest, many Englishmen whom we name rebels, and they martyrs.
Henry Garnet's
inscription says, That when the heretics could not prevail with him, either by threats or promises, to change his religion, they hanged and quartered him. At the Capuchins is the
Escargotiere,
which is the more remarkable as nothing of the kind is to be met with in other countries. It is a square place boarded in, and filled with a vast quantity of large snails, that are esteemed excellent food when they are well dressed. The floor is strewed about half a foot deep with several kinds of plants, among which the snails nestle all the winter season. When Lent arrives they open their magazines, and take out of them the best meagre food in the world, for there is no dish that they reckon comparable to a ragout of snails.
About a league from Friburgh is an hermitage which has been highly extolled by travellers on account of its singularity. It is formed in the solid rock, and the chief curiosity consists in its having been the work of two men; as such, it is an astonishing performance, but in any other respect, it is hardly worth visiting. In the last century a hermit scooped out a hollow in this rock, just sufficient for him to lie at his full length: but his successor desiring a more commodious apartment, hewed, in the heart of the mountain, a chapel, several apartments, staircases, &c. The length of the whole is above 400 feet. One room is 90 feet long, and 20 broad; the steeple of this chapel, if it may be so called, is 80 feet high, and the chimney of the kitchen 90. The hermit who perforated this dwelling was near 30 years at the work. What an incredible waste of time and industry! But such is the folly of sequestered superstition, that for want of better occupations to employ the mind, it frequently has recourse to laborious trifles. The situation of this hermitage is beautiful; the rock, in which it is cut, hangs over the river Saine, which meandring through two chains of hills covered with wood, fills up all the valley beneath.
This canton is entirely catholic. It is supposed to contain above 60,000 inhabitants, without including the town of Friburgh, in which there are 6,000. The commerce here is too inconsiderable to be mentioned, and literature is by no means in a more flourishing state. This canton draws considerable subsidies from France both in money and salt; and it is computed that in proportion to its size, none of the other cantons have so many troops in that service.
The government of the canton of Friburgh is entirely aristocratic, the sovereign and legislative authority being vested in the great council, consisting of 300; the members of which are chosen from that council, and from a few patrician families. This government resembles the other aristocratic states of Switzerland. The most remarkable circumstance that distinguishes it, is the mode of electing the members of the secret and of the little council. The names of the candidates are privately placed in a box, containing as many divisions as there are persons who solicit the vacant office. In one of these partitions, the electors put in their ballot, as chance directs, without knowing to which of the candidates they may happen to give their vote: he who has most of these casual ballots is elected.
CHAP. VI.
Town and Canton of Zuric.
THE learned
Scheuchzer,
calls this canton an epitome of all Switzerland, as containing in it, hills, vallies, plains, corn-lands, vineyards, lakes, rivers, vegetables of all kinds, and whatever else is necessary to the support of life. Grain is cultivated all over the country, but it ripens later in the mountainous parts, where the air is colder than in the levels or sunny vallies. The hilly grounds in the east, west, and south borders afford a specimen of the fertile Alps, as abounding in milk, cattle, butter and cheese; and towards Schafhausen and the county of Turgau is a wine country. Fruits also are every where found here, and very good.
The lake of Zuric is the largest in all this Canton, and even one of the largest in Switzerland. It is of an oblong form and between 30 and 40 miles in length, but not more than four in breadth. The prospect from it is delightful; the little eminences by which it is bordered, being diversified with towns, villages, cornfields, and vineyards; and behind these is every where a gradual ascent of larger hills, terminating in the stupendous mountains of Glarus, Schweitz, and the Grisons, the summits of which are always covered with ice and snow.
The proportion of grain to the other productions of the earth, will appear from the following calculation: There are 217,000 acres laid out in grain, 14,000 in vines, 94,000 in meadows, 42,000 in pasturages, and 103,000 in forest.
The canton contained, in 1784, 174,572 souls; including 10,500 in the capital. This large population, in proportion to the size of the canton, is owing to the trade of Zuric; as at least two thirds of the inhabitants derive their livelihood by spinning thread and silk, and making linen for the manufactures of the town.
As sufficient corn is not produced for so large a population, the deficiency is chiefly supplied from Swabia. And in order to prevent a scarcity of so material an article, a public granary is maintained at the expence of government. The grain is retailed at the common price; but, in seasons of scarcity, it is sold considerably cheaper, than it can be purchased at the market. The good effects of this establishment, appeared in a scarcity of scorn, in the year 1771; when on account of its dearness, a pound of bread was sold for ten pence, the same quantity was delivered by government for four-pence.
In the list of those cantons, in which abundance is visible, says
De Langle,
that of Zuric ought not to be forgotten. The clothes of the poorest people, are not disfigured with either rents or dirt; they possess good stockings, good shoes, and good linen. I have traversed this canton several times—I have frequently seen the shirts and shifts hung out to dry; and of 30, I have scarce perceived three to have a single darn in them.
Nor is there a town here, however small it may be, where there is not a flesh market. An ox bleeding under the knife of a butcher, seems to lose all its horrors in the villages of this canton.
A peasant eat beef! What a theme, adds
De Langle,
for bitter reflections to the inhabitants of cities, who but too frequently can scarce procure bread!
The houses, however, do not correspond with the neatness and rural luxury of their garments. The furniture and utensils of cookery, the instruments of labour, and the vessels of wood and earthen-ware, are far from numerous. The generality of the towns and villages are ill-built—the houses constructed of wood—and the roofs badly covered, scarce exclude the burning rays of the sun, or the rigours of cold, and the inconveniences of wind and rain; almost the whole of them are without doors, and the inhabitants enter by the window!
The city of Zuric, stands at the northern extremity of the lake, and occupies both sides of the rapid and transparent Limmat. Its environs are extremely delightful; and exhibit an amphitheatre of hills, gradually sloping to the borders of the water, enriched with pasture and vines; dotted with innumerable villas, cottages, and hamlets; and backed on the west, by a bold and gloomy ridge of mountains, which rises gradually towards the Alps.
The town is divided into two parts; the old part, surrounded with the same ancient battlements and towers, which existed in the 13th century; and the suburbs, which are strengthened by fortifications in the modern stile, but too extensive. The ditches, instead of being filled with stagnant water, are mostly supplied with running streams. The public walk is pleasantly situated in a lawn, at the junction of the Limmat and the Sil, an impetuous and turbid torrent, which descends from the mountains of Einsidlin, two rows of lime trees, planted by the side of the Limmat, and following its serpentine direction, afford an agreeable shade in the heat of summer. The inhabitants are very industrious, and carry on with success, several manufactures: the principal are those of linens, cottons, muslins, and silk handkerchiefs. The manufacturers do not in general, dwell within the walls; but the materials are mostly prepared, and the work is completed in the adjacent districts. For this reason, Zuric does not exhibit the activity and numbers of a great commercial city. The environs, on the contrary, are so extremely populous, that perhaps few districts in the neighbourhood of a town, whose population scarcely exceeds 10,000 inhabitants, contain within so small a compass, so many souls. The streets are mostly narrow; the houses and public buildings, accord more with plainness and convenience, than with the elegance and splendor of a capital.
The increase of luxury and opulence, will appear from considering, that in 1357, the number of men-servants amounted to only 84, and of maid-servants to 263; whereas, in 1780, the former were 223, and the latter, 1734; or near a fifth of the whole population. In 1357, the amount of the whole population was 12,000 inhabitants, and in 1780, there were 10,000 inhabitants and upwards.
The manners of the inhabitants, are in general simple, and may perhaps in these times be esteemed antiquated. Dinner is usually served at 12: in the afternoon, the gentlemen assemble in clubs, or small societies in the town during winter, and at their respective villas in summer. They frequently smoke, and partake of wine, fruit, cakes, and other refreshments. The women, for the most part employed in their domestic occupations, or devoted to the improvement of their children, are not fond of visiting. When they go out, they generally assemble in separate coteries, to which only a few men, and those chiefly the nearest relations, are admitted; many of the ladies indeed, from a consciousness of their provincial accent, and a difficulty of expressing themselves in French, seldom make their appearance, when strangers are received.
This reserve, however, among the ladies, begins greatly to abate, and to give place to a more sociable intercourse. Such, however, is the prevalence of national habit, that a few families, which form a more agreeable mixture of company, are considered as differing from the established customs, and are still known by the name of the French society.
Sumptuary laws, as well as those against immorality, are here well observed. The former indeed, may exist, and be carried into execution, even among a people much corrupted; for it may be the policy of government, to enforce their observance. But the severest penalties will not be sufficient to prevent crimes of an immoral tendency, amidst a general dissoluteness of manners: it is the popular principles that can alone invigorate such laws, and give them their full operation. Among their sumptuary laws, the use of a carriage in the town is prohibited to all sorts of persons, except strangers, and it is almost inconceivable, that, in a place so commercial and wealthy, luxury should so little prevail.
At Zuric, the original Swiss spirit of independence prevails, more than in any of the large towns in this country. The magistrates, less influenced by foreign courts, and above corruption, generally consult the real advantage of their canton, and of the Helvetic confederacy. Zuric still preserves in the general diet, a very considerable sway, which she deserves, more from the opinion entertained of her integrity, than from her power: she is looked up to, as one of the most independent and upright of the 13 cantons.
The charitable establishments at Zuric, are the orphan house, which is regulated with extreme attention and care; an alms-house for poor burghers, an hospital for incurables, and that for the sick of all nations, which usually contains between six or 700 patients; and the
Allmosen-Amt,
or foundation for the poor: this excellent institution, puts out children as apprentices; and distributes money, clothes, and books of devotion to poor persons, as well in the town, as in different parts of the canton, at the recommendation of the respective ministers. In 1778, it distributed £5451.
Among the particular institutions, must not be omitted the chirurgical seminary; it is formed by voluntary subscriptions, and meets with great encouragement.
At Zuric, public education is a matter of state, and under the immediate protection of government. The principal literary establishments for the instruction of youth are, the Caroline College for students in divinity; the college for polite literature, and the school of arts. The learned languages, divinity, natural history, mathematics, and in short, every species of polite learning, as well as abstruse science, is taught at small expence in these respective seminaries.
In consequence of the unremitted attention, which, since the reformation, government has paid to the education of youth, many eminent persons have flourished in all branches of literature; and there is no town in Switzerland, where letters are more encouraged, or where they have been cultivated with greater success. A learned professor of Zuric, has, in a very interesting publication, displayed the important services, which erudition and science have derived from the labours of his countrymen. In those biographical memoirs appear, among many others, the names of
Zuingle, Bullinger, Conrad, Gesner, Hottinger, Simler, Spon, Scheutzer, Heydegger, Breitinger, Bodmer, Hertzel, Solomon Gesner,
and
Lavater.
The curiosity of the naturalist will be amply gratified by a view of the library and cabinet of Mr.
John Gesner,
professor of physics, and canon of the cathedral, who inherits the zeal for natural history, which characterized his great ancestor
Conrad Gesner.
His cabinet is extremely rich in fossils, and remarkable for numerous representations of insects admirably painted by
Schellenberg.
The society of physics owes its origin to Messrs.
Heydegger, Schultetz,
and
John Gesner.
The first regular meeting was held in 1745, in a private house; and in a few years they received the protection of government, which granted the profits of a lottery towards establishing a fund. There are now about a hundred and twelve members: each pays on his admittance eight florins, or about 17 shillings, and the same sum annually. Since 1757, a suit of apartments in a house, belonging to one of the tribes, has been assigned for holding their assemblies, and for containing their library and apparatus.
The grand and principal object of this society, is the encouragement and improvement of practical agriculture. For this purpose the members correspond with landholders in different parts of the canton, visit various districts in rotation; offer prizes for improvements in cultivation; and furnish small sums of money to the poorer peasants.
The public library at Zuric contains about 25,000 volumes, and a few curious manuscripts. Among the latter are the following: 1, The original manuscript of
Quintilian,
found in the library of S.
Gallen,
and from which the first edition of that great rhetorician was printed. 2. The psalms, in the Greek tongue, written on parchment, dyed of a violet colour. The letters are silver, except the initials, which are in gold characters, and the marginal references are red. 3. Three Latin letters from Lady
Jane Grey,
to
Bullinger,
in 1551, 1552, and 1553. These letters, written with her own hand, breathe a spirit of the most unaffected piety, and prove the extraordinary progress which this unfortunate and accomplished princess, though only in the 16th year of her age, had made in various branches of literature. The Greek and Hebrew quotations shew that she was well acquainted with these languages. This library is also rich in the best editions of the classics; and particularly in the early impressions of the 13th century.
The sovereign power resides exclusively in the burgesses of the town, consisting of about 2,000.
The burghers, beside the advantage of electing their magistrates, and of aspiring to the administration of affairs, enjoy the sole right of commerce; all strangers, and even subjects being excluded from establishing manufactures in the city, or in any part of the canton.
The legislative authority is vested by the burghers, in the sovereign council of 200; consisting, however, of 212 members, drawn from the 13 tribes, into which the burghers are divided, and comprising the senate or little council.
A burgher is qualified to vote at 20; is eligible into the sovereign council, at 30; and into the senate, at 35. By these wise regulations, a man must have formed some experience in public affairs, before he is capable of holding an important charge.
The revenues of government, though not exceeding £65,000
per Annum,
are more than proportionate to the expences; which are regulated with the strictest economy. The state is not only without debts, but an annual saving is deposited in the public treasury, for a resort upon any public emergency.
Zuric was the first town in Switzerland, that separated from the church of Rome; being converted by the arguments of
Zuingle.
The example of Zuric, was soon followed by Berne, Schafhausen, Basle, with part of Glarus and Appenzel; the other cantons continuing to adhere to the religion of their ancestors. In 1551, religious disputes broke out with so much violence and animosity, as to occasion a civil war; in which the protestants were defeated, and
Zuingle
lost his life, in the 48th year of his age, at the battle of Cappel. Since that period two other religious wars have been kindled; one in 1656, in which the catholics gained the advantage; and the other in 1712, when the protestants proved victorious. The peace of Arace, which terminated these unhappy disputes, has, it is to be hoped, finally composed all religious animosities. By that treaty it is stipulated, that in all the provinces subject to cantons of different religions, there shall be a perfect equality between the two sects, and that they shall both enjoy the same privileges: to which is added, an express prohibition to each party, not to use any terms of raillery or contempt, in speaking of their respective worships.
CHAP. VII.
Town and Canton of Lucerne.
LUCERNE, originally subject to the house of Austria, was continually exposed to the inroads of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden, after those cantons had secured their own liberty and independence. All her commerce to Italy, was by this means interrupted; her fair unfrequented, and her citizens compelled to be ever in arms, in order to protect their territory from incessant depredations. Under these circumstances, the house of Austria, instead of giving the citizens any effectual assistance, imprudently loaded them with additional taxes, as exorbitant as they were unjust. The consequence was, that Lucerne made her peace with the confederate cantons; and having soon after driven out the Austrian party, entered into a perpetual alliance with the canton of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden and became a member of the Helvetic confederacy.
The accession of Lucerne gave additional credit and power to the confederacy; and enabled it in 1386, to resist all the effort of a great and implacable enemy. In that year,
Leopold,
duke of Austria, invaded the canton with a numerous army; when the combined troops gained a bloody victory at Sempach, in which
Leopold
lost his life.
In the accounts of this battle an instance of private valour in an individual is recorded, which would have done honour to a Grecian or Roman name; and only wants the pen of a
Thucydides
or a
Livy
to be equalled in fame, to the exploits of the most admired heroes of antiquity. The Austrian army, far superior in number were drawn up in firm battalion, accoutred in heavy armour, and furnished with long pikes, which they presented before them. The Swiss troops were led into the attack in the form of a wedge, in order to open their way into the ranks of the enemy, and to break the solidity of the battalion. The latter nevertheless, continuing sometime impenetrable;
Arnold de Winkelseid,
a native of Underwalden, rushed alone upon the enemy to certain death; and seizing as many pikes as he could grasp, endeavoured to force through the ranks but was killed in the attempt. His patriotic valour was not exerted in vain; it inflamed the Swiss with new courage, and taught them the best method of penetrating into the battalion; which they at length effected, after the most desperate efforts of invincible resolution.
Leopold
himself might have escaped when his troops first began to give way; but with a magnanimity worthy of a better fate he determined, after having been a witness to the total rout of his army, not to survive so ignominious a day: accordingly he rushed into the thickest of the enemy and was slain.
In the arsenal of this place are still preserved his armour, together with a large quantity of cords; which, according to the tradition of the country, he is said to have brought with him, in order to have bound the citizens of Lucerne. The keeper of the arsenal displays these trophies with the same kind of triumph, as the man who shews the tower of London, points out the chains that were taken on board the Spanish Armada, which he tells strangers, were destined by
Philip
II. for the principal nobility in England.
The government of Lucerne is entirely aristocratical, or rather indeed oligarchical. There are 500 citizens in the town from whom a council of 100, comprising the senate or council of state, are chosen. The former is the nominal sovereign; but the whole power actually resides in the latter, consisting of 36 members, formed like that of Zuric, into two divisions, which exercise the office by rotation. The council of state has cognizance of criminal causes; but in case of capital condemnation, the sovereign council is convoked in order to pronounce the sentence: a practice worthy of imitation! for the condemnation of a criminal cannot be too maturely weighed; and the more solemnity is used in pronouncing the sentence, the greater effect it must have upon the minds of the people.
As Lucerne is first in rank and power among the catholic cantons: all affairs relative to religion are treated in the diet, which assembles in the town every year, composed of the deputies of the other cantons: and the Pope's nuncio resides here. The town contains scarcely 3000 inhabitants; has no manufactures of any consequence, and little commerce; and as to learning, says
Coxe,
it no where meets with less encouragement, and consequently is less cultivated.
The whole of what is remarkable in this town may be comprised in a very short description. The cathedral and the Jesuits church are the only public buildings worth observing; but they are too much loaded with rich ornaments, and disgraced by bad paintings. In the cathedral is an organ of a fine tone, and of an extraordinary size: of the latter some judgment may be formed by the dimensions of the centre pipe, which is said to be 40 feet in length, and near three in breadth, and weighs 1100 pounds.
The bridges which skirt the town, round the edge of the lake, are the fashionable walks of the place, and remarkable for their length. They are covered at top, and open at the sides; by which means there is a constant view of this delightful and romantic country.
The inhabitants are almost totally engaged in agriculture. The southern parts of the canton being chiefly mountainous, furnish for exportation cattle, hides, cheese, and butter; all the northern parts is fruitful in corn; the crops of which being more than sufficient for the consumption of the whole canton, there is a constant exportation of this article from the weekly market held in the town. This commerce is its chief support.
In Lucerne is to be seen a topographical representation of part of Switzerland, which attracts the notice of strangers, and merits the most accurate attention of the curious traveller. General
Puiffer,
who is the ingenious artist of this structure, is a native of the place, and a general in the French service. It is a model in relief; and contains about 60 square leagues of the most mountainous parts of Switzerland; namely, part of the cantons of Lucerne, Zug, and Berne, together with the whole of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden. This model is 12 feet long, and nine and a half broad. The principal part is composed of wax, the mountains of stone, and the whole is coloured: but what deserves more particular observation is, that not only the woods of beech, pine, &c. are differently marked; but also the outward strata of the several mountains, as well as their form, are distinguished. In this work, the General employed about ten years with the utmost patience and assiduity: he himself raised the plans upon the spots, took the elevations of the mountains and laid them down in their several proportions. The plan is so minutely exact, that it takes in not only all the mountains, lakes, rivers, towns, villages, and forests, but every cottage, every torrent, every bridge, and even every cross is distinctly and accurately represented. In the prosecution of this laborious performance, he was twice arrested for a spy; and in the popular cantons, was frequently forced to work by moon-light, in order to avoid the jealousy of the peasants, who would have thought their liberty endangered by so exact a plan being taken of their country. As he was obliged to remain for some time upon the tops of the Alps, where no provision could be procured, he generally carried with him a few she-goats, whose milk supplied him with nourishment. Indeed his perseverance in surmounting all the difficulties that necessarily arose in the course of this undertaking, is almost inconceivable. When he finished any particular part, he sent for the peasants who resided near the spot, especially those who hunted the chamois, and bid them examine accurately each particular mountain; whether it corresponded, as far as the smallness of the scale would admit with its natural appearance: and then, by frequently retouching, he corrected the deficiencies.
This model exhibiting the most mountainous parts of Switzerland, conveys a sublime picture of an immense body of Alps, piled one upon another, as if the story of the Titans were realized, and they had succeeded at least in one part of the globe in heaping an Ossa upon Pelion, and an Olympus upon Ossa. The General informed me, says
Coxe,
and it is somewhat remarkable, that the top of the Alps, which cross Switzerland in the same line, are nearly of the same level: or in other words, there are continued chains of mountains of the same elevation, rising in progression to the highest range; and from thence gradually descending in the same proportion towards Italy.
Lucerne, says
Martyn
is situated at the extremity of a most beautiful lake, where the river Reuss issues from it. This river separates the town into two unequal parts, which are connected by three bridges; one wide, for carriages, and two narrow covered ones, for foot passengers: besides these there is a fourth, over an arm of the lake, to pass to the cathedral. Three of these bridges have old bad paintings, of the dance of death, and the history of the bible, and of Switzerland. The buildings are ancient, and the streets narrow; nor is Lucerne populous in proportion to its extent. Since this is the great passage to Italy by mount
S. Gothard;
and the merchandize which comes from the Alps on mules, and is to be transported by the rivers Reuss, Aar, and Rhines, is all deposited here: it might have a flourishing trade of arts and manufactures were it attended to.
The lake of Lucerne exhibits greater variety, and more picturesque scenery than any other of the Swiss lakes. It is seven leagues long in a right line, and three wide about Kussnacht; but the shape is very irregular. The town of Lucerne, forms a fine object at one extremity. Mount Pelat, and the Rugi, are noble mountains: the first well known to naturalists for the variety of its plants and fossils; the second, peculiarly fitted to give a view over great part of Switzerland. At the foot of this, is the smallest republic, and perhaps the most perfect democracy in Europe, that of Gersaw. The inhabitants are about 1000; it is absolutely independent; and under the protection of the four cantons. The scenery of that part, which is called the lake of Uri, is particularly sublime: it is narrow, and edged on both sides with the most wild and romantic rocks, with woods of beech and pine, down to the very waters edge.
But this lake is particularly interesting, for having been the theatre, whereon the independency of Switzerland was originally planned. Here is the chapel of
William Tell,
on a rock jutting out into the lake, under a hanging wood: and the village of Brunnen, where the treaty of 1315, was signed between Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden. Schweitz, the capital of the canton, is but two miles from it.
The canton of Lucerne, holds the third place among the 13, and is the head of the catholic cantons. Though less than Zuric, and consequently less than Berne, it is, however, far more extensive than any of the rest, being 15 or 16 leagues long, and eight broad. The population is estimated at 100,000. The difference between Zuric and Lucerne, is very striking; there, every body is employed in useful arts and manufactures: here, all is gay, and pleasure seems the only pursuit.
CHAP. VIII.
Town and Canton of Soleure.
SOLEURE is pleasantly situated on the Aar, which here expands its banks, and opens into a fine broad river. It is a small, but extremely neat town, and is surrounded by regular stone fortifications, erected in the beginning of the present century; their walls enclose a circumferance of scarcely more than 50 square acres, and including the suburbs, contain about 4000 souls. Among the most remarkable objects of curiosity in this town, is the new church of S. Urs. It is a noble edifice, of whitish grey stone, drawn from the neighbouring quarries, which admits a polish, and is a species of rude marble. The lower part of the building, is of the Corinthian, the upper of the Composite order: the facade, which consists of a portico, surmounted by an elegant tower, presents itself finely at the extremity of the principal street.
Pizoni
was the architect, and the expence amounted to at least £80,000; a considerable sum for so small a republic, whose revenues scarce surpass £12,000
per Annum.
A picture by
Rubens
and his scholars, in the church of the Cordeliers, and one by
Le Saeur,
in that of the Capuchins, deserve perhaps to be noticed by the traveller, who is fond of the fine arts. The town-house is not in itself worthy of observation, but is mentioned only as being the place of meeting for the great council and senate.
The public prison, newly constructed, is a solid edifice of stone, and is well adapted to the purpose of the building; the prisoners being confined in separate cells. Although the penal laws are severe in theory, yet the judicial sentences, in criminal affairs, are so remarkably mild, that a prisoner, on his acquital, wrote the following inscription on the wall of his cell: "He who is inclined to rob, and escape hanging, let him rob in the canton of Soleure." The Jesuits church is famous for its paintings, stucco-work, and frontispiece, towards which,
Lewis
XIV. gave 10,000 livres.
The public library deserves to be mentioned, not for the number or rarity of the volumes, but for the literary zeal of the Abbé
Herman,
a canon of the cathedral, to whom it owes its origin. In 1776, there was no public collection of books; but a few years ago, that ingenious ecclesiastic, amassed about 400 volumes from his own and his friends stock, obtained from government an apartment in the town-house, where he deposited them, and requested to be appointed librarian, but without a salary. His petition being granted, he continued to augment his little collection; and from this small beginning, has increased it already to 11,000 books, among which are above 150 printed in the 15th century. At the two extremities of the room, are inscribed the names of the benefactors to the library. As yet there is no fund established for its support or augmentation.
The Abbé has also begun to form a cabinet of medals, which, though small, will increase like the library. Great merit is due to the Abbé, for having given birth to this collection, at first alone and unsupported, and in so disinterested a manner, as his income does not exceed £60
per annum,
and in a town where literature is not much encouraged, This learned ecclesiastic is now employed in writing an account of Soleure, at the period of the reformation, and in collecting ample materials for a complete history of the canton.
With respect to natural history, the only cabinet in the town is that formed by Senator
Wallier:
it is a small collection, but well chosen, and particularly interesting to the naturalist who travels into those parts; because the ingenious collector has confined himself chiefly to the minerals and petrefactions of the canton.
The environs of this city are planted with very fine walks; and the circumjacent country is exceedingly pleasing and diversified, and exhibits several points of view, which are as agreeable as wild, and as pleasing as romantic. Among these is the situation of a hermitage, about half a mile from the town, which is remarkably striking: it is a most agreeable recess at the extremity of a small wood, and between two ridges of bare perpendicular rocks, watered by a lively stream; one extremity is closed by a small wood, and the other opens into fertile grounds, backed by the dark mountains of Jura.
The canton of Soleure is nearly twelve leagues in length, and seven in its greatest breadth; stretching partly through the plain, and partly along the ridges of the Jura. Its population may amount to between 40 and 50,000 souls, of which the capital contains about 5000: all the inhabitants of the canton are catholics.
The government is aristocratical, upon much the same plan as that of Lucerne, and of Fribourg: the patrician families are in possession of all the public employments. The sovereign council consists of 125 members, from which the senate or acting council, consisting of 35, is elected.
The revenues of this government, and the stipends of the numerous places held under it, are by no means small; so that the chief families derive, from the several parts they possess, very profitable emoluments.
The soil of this canton is exceedingly fertile, and those districts which lie within the Jura, abound in excellent pasture: but there is a great want of hands for all the purposes of agriculture; Nevertheless the ground is so particularly favourable to corn, that a third part of the yearly produce may be exported, without the least detriment to the public. The trade, both of the town and the canton, is of little value, although they are very commodiously situated for carrying on an extensive commerce.
The French ambassador to the Helvetic body, resides in this town, and distributes from hence those annual pensions or subsidies which the court of France stipulated by treaty to pay the Cantons: they amount to about 30,000 pounds a year.
On the road between Berne and Solure is a monument erected by the republic of Berne, which tells us the story of an Englishman who is not to be met with in any of our own writers. The inscription is in Latin verse on one side of the stone, and in German on the other. The substance of it is this: 'One
Cussinus,
an Englishman, to whom the Duke of Austria had given his sister in marriage, came to take her from among the Swiss by force of arms, but after having ravaged the country for some time, he was here overthrown by the canton of Berne.'
CHAP. IX.
Town and Canton of Basle.
TO the east this canton is bounded by the Frickthal, to the south and west by the canton of Soleure; and to the north by the Margravate of Baden Durlach, and by Rheinfalden, a foreign district in Austria.
From Basle, as far as Lichstal and Sissach, the whole country abounds in corn and wine; but beyond it, is extremely mountainous, cold, and even barren, except that on these mountains; and in the valleys are the most beautiful pastures covered with cattle. In the city of Basle are divers medicinal springs, and in the rest of the country, baths of approved virtue.
In the whole canton are three towns, and it has constantly persevered in the profession of protestantism, ever since the introduction of that religion in 1529.
Basle, the capital, is beautifully situated upon the banks of the Rhine, near the point where that river, which here becomes very broad, deep, and rapid, after flowing some way from east to west, turns suddenly to the north. It consists of two towns joined together by a long bridge; the large town lies on the side of Switzerland, and the small town on the opposite banks of that river. It stands very favourably for commerce; an advantage which the inhabitants have by no means neglected: for they have established a great variety of manufactures, particularly of ribbands and cottons; and an extensive trade is carried on by the principal merchants.
The cathedral is an elegant gothic building, but strangely disfigured by a daubing of rose-coloured paint, spread over the whole edifice.
In this church are deposited, under a marble tomb, the venerable remains of the great
Erasmus.
This distinguished writer, joined to superior learning, and a peculiar elegance of style, the keenest wit, which he pointed, not only against the vices and ignorance of the monks, but the general corruption and disorders of the Roman church. He was indeed the forerunner of
Luther,
in his first attack upon the catholics, respecting the sale of indulgences: but afterwards, when the controversy appeared more serious, and an open breach with the court of Rome seemed inevitable, he condemned the proceedings of that bold reformer.
Erasmus
reflected much honour upon this town by choosing it as the favourite place of his residence, and publishing from hence the greatest part of his valuable works. In the public library are preserved, with great veneration, several of his letters, his last testament, written with his own hand; as also his hanger and seal.
The university of Basle, founded by Pope Pius II. in 1459, was formerly eminent in the literary history of Europe. If it has fallen from its pristine state of renown, its decline must be principally imputed to the casual method of electing the professors; but it still boasts several members who do honour to their native town by their learning and abilities.
The public library contains a small collection of books, chiefly remarkable for several rare and valuable editions; particularly of those printed in the 15th century. The most curious manuscripts are numerous letters of the first reformers, and of other learned men in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries; and an account of the proceedings at the council of Basle.
In a suit of rooms belonging to this library, is a cabinet of petrefactions; some ancient medals and gems; a few antiquities found at Augst; a large number of prints, and some fine drawings and paintings, consisting chiefly of originals by
Holbein,
who was a native of this town. These pictures are most of them in the highest preservation: the connoisieur can here trace all the different manners of
Holbein,
and compare the productions of his youth with those of his maturer age.
Among the works of
Holbein,
that discover the liveliness of his fancy, must be mentioned the sketches which he drew on perusing the eulogium of Folly, by
Erasmus,
upon the margin of that work; which he had received as a present from the author. This curious volume is preserved in the library with great attention; and has been lately published in French, Latin, and German by M.
Haas,
with fac-similies of the original designs, engraved on wood.
The dance of death, in the church-yard of the predicants, of the suburbs of S. John, is frequently shewn to strangers as being of
Holbein's
pencil. It is painted in oil colours, upon a wall enclosing the burial ground; but as it has been retouched several times, no traces are discoverable of that great master's hand. In fact the
Hon. Horace Walpole,
and other unquestionable judges, have proved that this performance was painted before
Holbein,
and that he was not employed even in retouching it.
Basle is the largest, and seems formerly to have been one of the most populous towns in Switzerland: its extent is capable of containing above 100,000 inhabitants; whereas it can scarcely number 11,000. Many particular causes may have occurred to occasion this remarkable decrease of people; but the following is the principal reason to which it may be assigned.
It is proved from undoubted calculations, that, in all great cities, the number of burials exceeds that of births: consequently, unless this unequal proportion is compensated by a constant accession of new inhabitants, in process of time every great town must necessarily become depopulated. Now the citizens of Basle are so jealous of the burghership, and pride themselves so much upon the privileges which accompany it, that they seldom deign to confer it upon foreigners: a supply therefore to balance this gradual waste of people, can never be derived from an influx of strangers, where they are not permitted to carry on commerce, or follow any trade. A few years ago, some of the magistrates procured a law, by which the freedom of the town, and the right of burghership was allowed to be conferred on strangers; but it was clogged with so many restrictions, as by no means to answer the purpose for which it was intended, for bodies of men are seldom actuated by so generous a spirit, as to sacrifice their personal and immediate advantages, to the future welfare and prosperity of their country.
A very remarkable singularity in this town, which surprises every stranger is, that all the clocks constantly go an hour faster than the real time. Different reasons have been assigned for this. Some assert, that it was first practised during the council at Basle, in order to assemble at an earlier hour, the cardinals and bishops, who being very lazy and indolent, always arriving too late. Others maintain, that a conspiracy being formed to assassinate the magistrates at midnight, one of the burgo-masters, who had notice of the design, caused the clock-maker to advance the town-clock an hour; by which means, the conspirators, imagining the appointed time was elapsed, retired: and that the clocks are kept still in the same advance, to commemorate that happy deliverance. But there is a third reason given for this strange custom, which seems the most probable. It is well known, that the choirs of cathedrals are constructed towards the east; that of Basle, declines somewhat from this direction; and the sun-dial which is placed on the outside of the choir, and by which the town-clock is always regulated, partakes of this declination; a circumstance which, according to the celebrated
Bernoville,
occasions a variation from the true time above five and forty minutes.
The inhabitants of Basle, are still so attached to this whimsical custom, that, although it has been often proposed in the sovereign council to regulate their clocks properly, yet the motion has been invariably rejected; and the people would suspect that their liberties were invaded, if their clocks were to agree with those of the rest of Europe. A few years since, several leading men of the town determined to alter the hand of the sun-dial half a minute a day until the shadow should imperceptibly point to the true hour. This expedient was accordingly adopted, and the clock had already lost near three quarters of an hour when an accident discovered the design: the magistrates were accordingly compelled to place the hand of the sun-dial in its former position, and to regulate the hours by it as usual. Long established custom, however ridiculous, is apt to make so strong an impression upon vulgar minds, as to become sometimes dangerous, and always difficult to be abolished. It was no inconsiderable length of time, before we in England could be persuaded to reckon our years according to the general mode of computation received by the rest of Europe.
The bridge over the Rhine is 250 common paces in length, and makes a good appearance. On the tower which stands towards France is a Moor's head crowned, which every minute thrusts out its long red tongue. This droll figure, however does not disgust like that filthy representation which stands in a little cabin in the middle of the bridge, before which the public prostitutes, when banished from the town are found to undergo some ridiculous ceremonies. This Moor's head was originally a piece of mechanical wit of the famous Clock-maker who saved the town. He made it in derision of the enemy he had so dexterously deceived. It has been repaired and enabled to thrust out its tongue every minute for 400 years past, at the expence of the magistrates, who think, as I have observed, so excellent a joke cannot be too often repeated.
St. Peter's square, with its rows of lime trees, is the best walk in Basle. In 1689, an oak was planted here, which by the particular arrangement of its wide branches, forms three distinct landing places or floors.
Not far from the Cathedral is the
Hotel de Ville,
an ancient building; the great room in which the Council assembled in 1481, remains, seemingly in its original state.
The sumptuary laws are very strict here. The use of coaches in the town is not indeed prohibited, as at Zuric; but, what is more singular, no citizen or inhabitant, is allowed to have a servant behind his carriage. Laws of this kind may be carried, in some instances, to a scrupulous and even ridiculous minuteness; upon the whole, however, they are excellent regulations, and not only useful, but necessary in a small republic.
The lower rank of citizens are, in general, so strongly prejudiced in favour of this town, as to seem convinced that true felicity is only to be found at Basle. Every person boasts that he is free, and is so in reality; and as the citizens not only possess very considerable privileges and immunities; but each individual may also indulge the hope of being one day chosen into the sovereign council; he enjoys a certain degree of respect and consideration extremely flattering to his self-importance.
The inhabitants of Basle, says
Moore,
seem to be of a reserved and saturnine disposition; whether natural or affected is not easy to tell; but the few, says this writer I conversed with, had something uncommonly serious and formal in their manner. How an unremitting gravity and solemnity of manner, in the common affairs of life comes to be considered as an indication of wisdom, or of extraordinary parts is not a little surprising. So many ridiculous things occur every day in this world, that men, who are endowed with that degree of sensibility, which usually accompanies genius, find it very difficult to maintain a continued gravity. This difficulty is abundantly felt, even in the grave and learned professions; and the individuals who have been most successful in surmounting it, and who never deviate from the solemnity of established forms, have not always been the most distinguished for real knowledge or genius; though they are generally most admired by the multitude, who are very apt to mistake that gravity for wisdom, which proceeds from a literal weight of the brain and muddiness of understanding. Mistakes of the same kind are frequently made in forming a judgment of books as well as of men. Those which profess a formal design to instruct and reform, and carry on the work methodically till the reader is lulled into repose, have passed for deep and useful performances; while others, replete with original observation and real instruction, have been treated as frivolous, because they are written in a familiar style, and the precepts conveyed in a sprightly and indirect manner.
Works composed with the laborious desire of being thought profound, have so very often the misfortune to be dull, that some people have considered the two terms as synonimous; and the men who receive it as a rule, that one set of books are profound, because they are dull; may naturally conclude, that others are superficial, because they are entertaining. With respect to books, however, matters are soon set to rights; those of puffed and false pretensions, die neglected, while those of real merit, live and flourish. But with regard to the men, the catastrophe is often different; we daily see formal assuming blockheads, flourish and enjoy the fruits of their pompous impositions, while many men of talents, who disdain such arts, live in obscurity, and die neglected.
Moore
here gives a curious anecdote of this saturnine disposition, in a Dutchman, whom he supped with at a
table-d'hote
in this city. There were ten or a dozen people at table. I sat next to a genteel looking man from Strasburgh, with whom I conversed a good deal, during supper. He had for his companion, a round faced, rosy, plump gentleman, from Amsterdam, who did not speak French; but the Strasburgher addressed him from time to time in Low Dutch, to which the other replied by nods
When the retreat of the greater part of the company had contracted the little circle which remained, I expressed some regret to my Strasburgh acquaintance, that my friend and I could not speak a little Dutch; or that his friend could not speak French, that we might enjoy the pleasure of his conversation. This was immediately translated to the Dutchman, who heard it with great composure, and then took the pipe from his mouth, and made an answer, which, with some difficulty, I got our interpreter to explain. It was to this effect: That we ought to console ourselves for the accident of not understanding each other; for as we had no connection or dealing in trade together, our conversation could not possibly answer any useful purpose. My friend made a low bow to this compliment, saying, that the justness and good sense of that remark, had certainly escaped my observation, as he acknowledged it had hitherto done his.
The supreme legislative power of this canton, resides in the great and little councils, consisting of about 300 members: and the authority of these two councils combined, is without controul. They enact laws; declare war and peace; contract alliances; and impose laws: they elect the several magistrates; appoint their own members; nominate to all employments; and confer the right of burghership. The general administration of government, is committed by the great council to the senate, or little council, that is, to a part of its own body. This senate, composed of 60 members, is divided into two bodies, which act by rotation. The acting division continues in office one year; decides finally in all criminal causes; superintends the police; and exercises several other powers subordinate to the sovereign council. The collective body of the citizens, assemble once every year, when the magistrates publicly take an oath to maintain the constitution, and preserve the liberties and immunities of the people inviolate. The reciprocal oath of obedience to the laws, is also administered to the citizens.
Notwithstanding the great and boundless prerogative of the great council; yet the meanest citizen is capable of being admitted into that body; for the vacancies in the two councils, are supplied from all ranks of citizens, one class only excepted, the members of the university. Formerly these elections were determined by a plurality of voices, but as by these means, the richest person was always certain of being chosen, a
ternaire
was established in 1718, which was afterwards changed into a
senaire,
that is, six candidates are nominated, and from these the successor is appointed by lot.
But the principal magistrates are not the only persons chosen by lot; even the professors in the University are elected in the same manner. Hence nothing is more common than for a candidate to offer himself for the professorship of a science, which he has never made the peculiar object of his studies; if the chair of that particular science in which he excels is already occupied: for under these circumstances, the respective unqualified professors change place with each other.
Near Basle are the ruins of Augusta Rauricorum, formerly a large town under the dominion of the Romans, now a small village in the canton of Basle close to the Rhine. Its ancient remains are very inconsiderable, consisting of a few columns of marble, still standing, and some scattered fragments of pillars, together with a semicircular range of walls upon a rising ground, the greatest part of which is fallen, and is almost entirely overgrown with underwood. From the present appearance of these ruins, it would scarce be conjectured that they once composed part of a theatre capable of containing about twelve thousand spectators.
The peasants in turning up the ground where these ruins are situated, frequently find medals of the Roman emperors, from
Augustus
to
Constantine:
and are become, by repeated experience, able to distinguish, with some degree of precision, those that are rare from the more common coins.
M.
Kochlin's
commercial school at Mulhausen, about fifteen miles from Basle, deserves to be mentioned. It is a private academy, for about thirty scholars, who are instructed in the German, French, and Latin languages; in fencing, dancing, and all polite accomplishments; and more particularly in accounts and book-keeping. The expence, including a uniform, amounts to 50l.
per annum,
The plan is very judicious, and the whole appears to be well conducted.
At Bellelay about 20 miles from Basle, in a rich abbey of Benedictines, has been instituted a military academy for the young nobility and gentry. They are instructed in the various branches of polite literature, wear uniforms, and are trained to military manoeuvres and exercises. The cheapness of this school, and its distance from the dissipation of large towns, renders it of great public utility. The whole expence of each scholar, for his board, lodging, instruction, and various lessons, scarcely exceeds 20l.
per annum.
It is curious to find a military academy established in the midst of rocks and forests, and within the walls of a convent; and to observe Benedictine friars, instead of wasting their time in monkish ignorance and superstition, rendering themselves beneficial to society.
At Arlesheim about four miles from Basle, is a curiosity of another kind, a hermitage that has been made at considerable expence, with a view to employ the poor in a time of great scarcity, and to provide walks for the inhabitants of the town. The grounds are very extensive and pleasant. The walks are carried along the sides of the rocks, which are richly wooded, and through a delightful semicircular plain, bounded by fertile hills, and watered by a small lake, the borders of which are peculiarly wild and picturesque. Several caverns, hollowed and arched by the hand of nature, add to the romantic singularity of the scenery; while many transparent streams, conveyed from a considerable distance fall in small cascades, or bubble from the ground like real springs.
CHAP. X.
Town and Canton of Schaffhausen.
SCHAFFHAUSEN is the most northern of all the cantons of Switzerland, and for the most part surrounded by Swabia. It is the twelfth canton in rank, and the least of them all, being only five leagues in length, and three in breadth. The number of inhabitants is estimated at about 30,000. The Rhine, the course of which has been described is the only river of note here. This canton produces a great deal of corn, though not in sufficient quantity for the inhabitants, who are farther supplied from Swabia. It is abundant in hay and fruit; and of good red wine there is a considerable quantity furnished for exportation.
Schaffhausen is a neat and tolerably well-built town, situated upon the northern shore of the Rhine; it is the capital of the canton, and owes its origin to the interruption of that river by the cataract at Lauffen: huts being at first constructed for the convenience of unloading the merchandize from the boats, by degrees increased to a large town. Its present population is supposed to be about 6,000 inhabitants. It was formerly an imperial city and governed by an aristocracy, and in 1501 was admitted a member of the Helvetic confederacy. It is slightly fortified, and has a kind of citadel, but no garrison, though a frontier town. The buildings are old fashioned and indifferent: most of them have the name of the inhabitant, the date of the building, and some device over the door, and some have the front painted all over. Here and at Basle, they are fond of salient windows and mirrors to enable them to look up and down the streets: these are not very narrow, but they are ill paved, with middle and cross kennels. There are two considerable churches, the Munsters and St. John's; in the latter is a library; and there is a second in the town for the use of the citizens. At the reformation, a school or academy was established, where the sacred languages, and sciences proper for ecclesiasties are taught.
The only thing that can really excite the attention of the judicious stranger in this canton, is the wooden bridge thrown across the Rhine, and which is totally disregarded by the inhabitants. This bridge, which is 342 feet long, is entirely covered with a roof from one extremity to the other, and is so contrived, that there is no necessity for any arches to support it. Every time that a carriage travels along, it yields to the pressure, swings from one side to the other, and seems ready to give way; it is however remarkably safe, and has remained in the same situation for many years.
This singular erection is the work of a simple carpenter, of the canton of Appenzel, called
Grubbenmann.
It is asserted, that the whole bridge consists entirely of one arch, and the pier which is placed in the middle of the river, was added at the particular desire of the magistrates of Schaffhausen, who were at once astonished and affrighted at the boldness of the undertaking.
The river here, says
Coxe,
is extremely rapid, and had already destroyed several bridges of stone, built upon arches of the strongest construction, when this carpenter undertook to throw a wooden one of a single arch across it. The magistrates however, insisted that it should consist of two arches, and that he should make use for that purpose, of the middle pier of the old bridge, which remained entire. Accordingly, the architect was obliged to obey; but he has contrived it in such a manner, that the bridge is not at all supported by the middle pier, and it would certainly have been equally safe, and considerably more beautiful, had it consisted solely of one arch. It is a wooden bridge, of which the sides and top are covered, and the road over it is almost perfectly level: it is what the Germans call a
hoengewerk,
or hanging bridge; the road not being carried as usual over the top of the arch, but is let down into the middle of it and there suspended. A man of the slightest weight walking upon it, feels it tremble under him; and yet waggons heavily laden pass over it without danger; and although in the latter instance, the bridge seems almost to crack with the pressure, it does not appear to have ever suffered the least damage. It has been compared, and very justly, to a tight rope, which trembles when it is struck, but still preserves its firm and equal tension.
When we observe the greatness of the plan, and the boldness of the construction, we are astonished that the architect was a common carpenter, without the least proficiency in learning, totally ignorant of mathematics, and not at all versed in the theory of mechanics. Possessed of uncommon natural abilities, and a surprising turn for the practical part of mechanics, he raised himself to great eminence in his profession, and may justly be considered as one of the most ingenious architects of the present century. This bridge was finished in less than three years, and cost 90,000 florins, or about 8000l.
This same carpenter had agreed to throw a bridge of a single arch, and of the same construction, over the river Derry in Ireland. The river is 600 feet wide, which, by means of abutments, was to have been reduced to 400; it was to have cost 20,000l. but the plan was not carried into execution for want of proper encouragement.
The whole number of citizens or burgesses, in whom the supreme power ultimately resides, are computed at about 2000; the arsenal is far from being considerable, yet on an emergency, sufficient to arm the townsmen and other subjects; who besides are not without necessary arms, every common inhabitant or peasant, going to church with his sword by his side: and whoever appears before the magistrates without that weapon and his cloak, incurs a severe penalty; the sword, besides being an ornament, is a mark of their freedom. Over all the district of Mount Jura, as far as it is dependant on the canton of Berne, the men go to church, not only with their swords, but their bayonets and firelocks, which, during the service, they either keep by them, or hang up in a particular corner of the church; an usage not improbably derived from the frequent commotions of former times, and the wars with the Burgundians, against whom, as an adjacent and dangerous enemy, it behoved them to be continually upon their guard.
This custom seems to indicate that the blood of the old Germans runs in the veins of these gallant Swiss, the most ancient historians relating, that they used to assist at their religious ceremonies, with their swords by their sides. And though, says
Keysler, Herodotus, Luccan,
and
Ammianus Marcellinus,
betray an absurd credulity in advancing that our ancestors used to pray to their weapons; yet it is too apparent, that even in later times they attributed a kind of sacredness to their swords. But this is in some sort excusable in a people, who maintain the reputation of intrepidity, as an inherent hereditary quality, and therefore called war
oerlogh,
i. e. the oldest law. According to
Cromer's
account of Poland, the nobility of that kingdom, ever since the more enlightened times of christianity, long retained the custom of half drawing their swords when the priest read the gospel, to testify their readiness to defend the truths of the sacred books, with their lives and fortunes.
The revenues of the state arise, partly from the tithes, and other articles of the like nature; but principally from the duties laid upon the merchandize, which passes from Germany: these customs are nearly sufficient to defray all the public expences.
Sumptuary laws are in force here, as well as in most parts of Switzerland; and no dancing is allowed, except upon particular occasions: silk, lace, and several other articles of luxury, are prohibited; even the ladies head-dresses are regulated. But what is of still greater importance, all games of chance are strictly prohibited; and in other games, the party who loses above six florins, which make nine shillings of our money, incurs a considerable fine. An excellent regulation! and further, these laws are not like ours, mere cyphers, but are well observed. The principal article of exportation, is wine; of which a large quantity is made, the country abounding in vineyards: and as the canton furnishes but little corn, it is procured from Suabia, in exchange for wine. In the town there are some, but not very considerable manufactures of linen, cotton, and silk: their commerce, however, is very flourishing.
The people of this canton, like those of Berne, are divided into regular companies of militia, which are exercised yearly, and are always ready and prepared to take up arms in defence of their country. This canton has some troops in the service of France, Sardinia, and Holland; the only foreign service into which the subjects of the protestant cantons enlist.
The great convenience of the Rhine to the commerce of Schaffhausen, is twice interrupted between this town and Basle, by violent falls of the river, which occasion an absolute necessity at each of these places, to take out the whole lading, and put it on board other vessels. One of these falls is near Rheinfelden, and though called Hellhaken, is not of any remarkable height, and nothing near so tremendous as the other, at about a quarter of a league from Schaffhausen, near the little fort of Lausfen, which stands on the other side; Lauffen was formerly in the possession of Austria, and from it the fall derives its name. I had not an opportunity, says
Keysler,
of taking with any precision, the height of the rock, from which the river here precipitates itself, so must rely on the information of the people, who make the height 70 feet, and the breadth about 90 paces. Even before the Rhine reaches this cataract, the ground is very rocky; and, at the fall, divides itself into three streams, of which the green-beds and silver vortices make an agreeable contrast to the beholder; but at the same time, his mind cannot help being filled with a mixture of dread and amazement, at the roar of the waters. On the south or Zuric side, is the most impetuous breach, the violence of the fall altering the water as it were, to a white dust, part of which, like a light cloud or mist, hovers in the air, and with the intercepted sun-beams, forms a variety of most brilliant rainbows. On the rocks which thus divide the Rhine into three streams, grow pines and other trees, and close by them, on the Schaffhausen side, near the village of Neuhausen, is an iron manufacture, which turns to very good account. In the iron ore, of which there is great plenty, are frequently found petrified muscles and cockles.
From the castle of Lauffen, this scene presents the most picturesque and beautiful view that the human fancy ever formed, or the human eye ever dwelt upon.
After the melting of the snow, when the river has attained its proper majesty and grandeur, the fall seems to be about 80 feet perpendicular.
It is remarkable, that the Rhine, formerly fell from a much greater height, than at present, and that the river, which is daily wearing away the surface of the rocks, will some time or other, present a plain, level, glassy superficies, to the view of the astonished stranger; who will scarce credit those tales of his ancestors, by which he was taught to believe that this was once a cataract.
CHAP. XI.
Of the Grisons.
THE country of the Grisons, is divided into three leagues, which unite and form one republic, the grey league, the house of God, and the ten jurisdictions. The respective communities of these three leagues, have their peculiar constitution, enjoy their municipal laws and customs, and are independent commonwealths in all concerns, which do not interfere with the general policy of the whole republic, or the articles of the particular league, of which they form a part: the connection between the three leagues, is maintained, by means of an annual diet, composed of 63 deputies, and the three chiefs.
This country borders to the east, on the territories of Venice and Milan; west, it joins the canton of Uri; and to the north, the canton of Glarus. Its greatest length from east to west, is from 80 to 90 miles; and from 60 to 70 in breadth. Their country is very populous, and it is said, they can bring 35,000 fighting men into the field.
The greatest part of the country is mountainous, but the levels and vallies produce almost all sorts of grain, with pulse plenty of hay, fruits of several kinds, and wines. Its hills, which are of a middling height, and enjoy a mild air, yield not only good fodder and hay, but also rye and barley; and in some parts cherries, and even on the highest and most barren parts, are good pasture grounds, besides many kinds of palatable and wholesome berries, which grow there. The principal occupation of the inhabitants, is feeding horned cattle, sheep, goats, and swine. Besides poultry, it also affords wild fowl; but of beasts, the continual demand for them, necessarily occasions a scarcity. The principal rivers are the Rhine, the Ina, and the Adda, all of which have their source in this country. Here are also several lakes, most of which lie on the summit of the hills, where they have their issue from fine springs.
The marmot, likewise, which is to be found in most of the mountains of Switzerland, is particularly common in that part of the Grisons, called the league of Gods-house.
In the whole country of the Grisons, there are but three towns, and those not of any note. The German language is mostly used, but in many places, the inhabitants also speak Italian. In Engadina, they speak a kind of Latin.
The principal food of the inhabitants in these mountains, is salt-meat, rye-bread, milk, cheese, polenta, and chesnuts, which are so plentiful at this season of the year, that they make a principal ingredient in all their meals: the most common methods of dressing them, are to boil, and serve them up with crums of bread; or to grind them to a paste, and then eat them with milk.
The peasants are well clothed. They manufacture linen and coarse cloth at home, every family having a loom, which is worked in the winter season. But the finer cloth, which they wear only on Sundays and festivals, is procured from Germany.
The revenues of the three leagues arise from the following articles: from duties upon merchandise passing through the Grisons, the Valteline, and Chiavenna, which are farmed at the annual rate of about £1259—from a third of the fines laid upon delinquents in the subject countries—from a small tribute likewise paid by them—and lastly from a fund, the principal part of which is £4000 vested in the English funds.
The public expenditure is very trifling, being chiefly confined to the expences incurred by the the sittings of diet, and the salaries assigned to the deputies for their attendance.
The commerce of the Grisons is extremely contracted. The only exports are cheese and cattle. As most of the Grison peasants weave cloth and linen for the use of their families; it would be no difficult undertaking to introduce manufactures in different parts. But it is remarkable that in these little republics a strange prejudice prevails against commerce; and that the project of establishing manufactures is opposed by many leading men of the country. It is difficult to discover the reason of these illiberal principles; it has been imputed to a suspicion, that if the people should become opulent by commerce, they would be less open to influence; and the powerful families who now direct the public affairs, would lose their ascendency. Besides these reasons, which are of too delicate a nature to be openly acknowledged, other motives, of a more generous complexion, having been assigned.
The advocates against extending commerce assert, that as the true riches of every country consists in the products of agriculture, all occupations which turn the attention of the people from that one great object, are detrimental to the general good of society; and that in free states manufactures tend to enervate the inhabitants, to introduce the baneful effects of luxury, to depress the spirit of freedom, and to destroy the general simplicity of manners.
These reasons, however specious in appearance, will prove fallacious upon mature consideration. If in a country, says
Coxe,
which subsists chiefly by agriculture, manufactures are pursued to the total neglect of husbandry, they then become detrimental; but this is seldom the case, as by adding to the general consumption, manufacturers usually tend to increase, instead of diminishing, the products of the earth. Such have been the effects in the mountains of Neuchatel, where the forests have been cleared, and the country converted into pasture, or sown with grain. Manufactures and commerce are still further serviceable in augmenting the number of inhabitants, which form the true riches of a country.
The religion of the Grisons is divided into catholic and reformed. By the reformed is meant what we call Calvinism, although it is not the same as was established at Geneva. Among the Grisons, the protestants are more numerous than the catholics. In spiritual concerns the catholics are generally under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Coire. For the affairs of the reformed churches, the supreme authority is vested in the synod, which is composed of three Deans, one for each league, and the clergy. This synod assembles every year, alternately, in each of the three leagues. Candidates for holy orders are examined before the synod. The necessary qualification for admission into the church ought to be, the knowledge of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin; but this rule is not strictly adhered to; many being ordained without the least acquaintance with either of those tongues. Formerly Latin was solely used, as well in the debates of the synod, as for the purpose of examining the candidates; but at present that tongue grows more and more into disuse, and German is employed in its stead.
The number of reformed parishes in the whole three leagues amounts to 135. The ministers of these churches enjoy but very small salaries. The richest benefices do not perhaps yield more than £20, or at most £25
per annum,
and the poorest sometimes scarcely £6.
This scanty income is attended with many inconveniences. It obliges the clergy, who have families, to follow some branch of traffic, to the neglect of their ecclesiastical studies, and to the degradation of the professional character. It was harvest-time, (says
Coxe,
when he visited this country) and I observed several clergymen employed in reaping the corn.
It may easily be conjectured that the general state of literature among the Grisons must be at a very low ebb. The protestants, who receive a liberal education, repair chiefly to Zuric or Basle, and the catholics to Milan, Pavia, or Vienna.
Each community has a small school, in which the children are taught to read, write, and cast accounts; but which is only open in winter, from the 9th of November, to the 7th of March.
There is a Latin seminary at Coire for the children of the burghers; and another, instituted in 1763, for the education of persons intended for the church; and although these establishments are poorly endowed, yet they have been productive of some literary advantages to the country.
The diet of the three leagues, which we have already said to be composed of 63 deputies, and the three chiefs of each league, assemble annually, about the beginning of September, at Ilants, Coire, and Davos, by rotation, the three principal places in each district; and continue sitting about three weeks or a month. The chief of that league, in whose district the diet is held, is president for that turn, and has the casting voice, in case of equal suffrages. The supreme authority is not absolutely and finally vested in the diet, but in the communities at large; for in all affairs of importance, such as declaring war, making peace, enacting laws, contracting alliances, and imposing taxes; the deputies either bring positive instructions from their constituents, or refer those points, concerning which they have no instructions, to the decision of the several communities; so that, in effect, the supreme power constitutionally resides in the body of the people, and not in their representatives at the diet. The deputies receive, for their attendance, a small salary from the public treasury, which never exceeds five shillings a day. Extraordinary diets are convoked at the request of any foreign court, who will discharge the expence of its sittings, and upon other important emergencies.
The three leagues are in close alliance with the cantons of Berne and Zuric, to whose mediation they have frequently had recourse, in points of disagreement. They have also alliances with several of the other cantons, and in case of invasion or rebellion, would be supplied with succours from all the Swiss republics.
The king of France maintains an envoy in this country, and has two Grison regiments in his service. Our court formerly had a minister here, but for some time, the English Envoy to the Swiss cantons, resident at Berne, has transacted business with this republic.
Near the borders of the torrent Tamina, which runs into the Rhine, are some warm baths, which have been so much renowned for their efficacy in curing the gout, rheumatism, and cutaneous disorders. According, to the general opinion, they contain a small portion of gold; as if that metal would render them more salutary for the cure of diseases. The waters are transparent; perfectly free from smell or taste, and about the warmth of milk, immediately drawn from the cow. Per
ons who have analysed them, say, they deposit no
diment, are as light and pure as rain-water, are
mpregnated with a small quantity of volatile al
ali and iron, but contain no sulphur. These wa
ers are conveyed by pipes into commodious baths; and the house, which is not only commodious but superb; hangs in a most romantic situation, on the side of a mountain, amidst the gloom of the forest, close to the lively Tamina.
CHAP. XII.
Vassals of the Grisons.
THESE consist of three countries, which are able to bring into the field about 12,000 fighting men. Among them is,
The Valteline, called by the inhabitants Valle-Telina, and which extends from the confines of Bornio to the lake of Chiavenna, about the length of 50 miles. It is entirely enclosed between two chains of high mountains; the northern chain separates it from the Grisons, the southern from the Venetian territories; on the east it borders on the county of Bormio; and on the west, on the Duchy of Milan.
The geographical division of the Valteline is divided into three principal districts, and the political into five governments. Each of the five governments is subject to a magistrate, appointed by the Grisons, who is changed every two years. The magistrate over the middle district, is called Governor of the Valteline, and possesses, in some respect, a superior degree of authority to the others, who are styled podestas. He is also captain-general of the Valteline.
This country is exceedingly fruitful, and throughout its whole extent watered by the Adda; which, after receiving all the streams issuing from the forest discharges itself into the Como lake. The sun-beams shine in every part of this country, and from the northern blasts it is fenced by high mountains. In some parts, however, the heat is intense, but in others more moderate; and on the hills, and the greatest part of the adjacent vallies, the air is mostly cool. Of this variation in the temperature, the necessary consequence is a variation in the products of the earth. The levels in this valley, through which the Adda pursues its meandering course, and the breadth of which, in some parts, is not less than a mile, exhibit a delightful variety of corn-fields, meadows, vineyards, and orchards of chesnuts, and other fruits; and in one and the same year successively, produce two, three, or even four kinds of the latter. The vineyards, on the mountains, towards the north, produce the best wine in the whole country; and above them are corn-fields, meadows, and pasture-lands. The hills, on the south-side, are covered with fine woods of chesnuts, fields, meadows, and rich pastures, in which graze numerous breeds of cattle. This country also abounds in excellent red wine, of a most delicious flavour, and of so good a body that it will keep for a whole century, improving both in taste and wholesomeness, and gradually turning paler, till at length its redness totally disappears. Great quantities of this wine are exported.
The apples and pears in most places here are not very desirable, but its peaches, apricots, figs, and melons are exquisite. Here are likewise plenty of lemons, citrons, almonds, pomegranates, chesnuts, and other delicious fruits. Its soil also would produce all kinds of grain and pulse; but the levels being interspersed with swamps, which have remained without culture, and the wine-trade chiefly engrossing the attention of the inhabitants, it does not yield a sufficiency of corn for so populous a country, and they are under the necessity of having recourse to importation. Some parts grow hemp, and in the levels, particularly on the higher grounds, and the mountains, are fine pastures, notwithstanding which graziery is but little followed. Bees and silk-worms are bred here in vast numbers. Their game is much reduced by the avidity of the hunters. The Adda yields plenty of fish, and is noted for its trout, which are very fat and delicious, and so large as to weigh from 50 to 60 lbs. The whole of their mine-works consists in a few iron-founderies.
This country is without so much as one town, but has some considerable burghs, with many thriving villages. Its language is a corrupt kind of Italian. The population, according to
Coxe,
amounts to 62,000 souls.
There are no manufactures in the Valteline; and almost all the menial trades are exercised by foreigners. Its chief commerce, which consists of wine and silk, is carried on with Milan and the Grisons. These two articles turn the balance of trade in its favour, and enable the inhabitants to exist without any manufacture.
Upon a rough calculation, 73,000 horse-loads of wine are annually exported, each of which may be estimated at a pound sterling. Three thousand lbs. of the finest sort of silk, which is esteemed as good as that procured from Piedmont, is sent annually to England, by way of Ostend. The greatest part of the silk is wound in the Valteline, for which purpose there are silk-mills in the principal districts.
The tenants who take farms in this country do not pay their rent in money, but in kind; a strong proof of general poverty. The peasant is at all the costs of cultivation, and delivers near half the produce to the landholders.
The Valteline, from its neighbourhood to Italy, has imbibed a taste for the fine arts; and there are many collections of pictures which are not unworthy of notice. This country, however, has produced few artists of any eminence.
Pietro Ligario
is almost the only painter who deserves to be mentioned; and his name is scarcely known beyond the limits of the Valteline.
The romantic beauties of the Valteline, are greatly heightened by the numerous remains of ancient fortresses and castles, scattered throughout the country. They were all dismantled soon after the capitulation of Milan, in 1635, from a recent experience that the inability of the Grisons to provide them with sufficient garrisons, exposed them to the enemy, and rendered them for the most part, a source of annoyance, rather than of protection. It might be imagined, that some of these fortresses ought to have been retained, to awe the inhabitants: but such an absolute confidence is reposed by the Grisons in the guaranty of the country by the house of Austria, that they do not maintain a single soldier throughout the whole Valteline.
This country, Bormio, subject to the Grisons, lies at the foot, and in the midst of the Rhetian Alps, and borders upon Engadina, the Valteline, Tyrol, Trent, and the Venetian territories. It is, on all sides, environed by steep mountains, of such a stupendous height, that their summits are very seldom free from snow; except a narrow opening, which connects it with the Valteline. It was once a part of the Milanese, and became subject to the Grisons in 1512. The inhabitants pay a fixed contribution to them which is very moderate, and cannot be increased.
The air here is rather cold than warm, but yet pure and healthy. No wine is produced in this country, and but little fruit. Of corn it has more than sufficient for home-consumption; and such is the richness of its pastures, that the inhabitants keep between 6 and 7000 cows, besides a great number of sheep and goats. The honey too of this country is particularly exquisite, and it abounds in iron ore; but its other metals and minerals are inconsiderable. The Adda has its source in these parts.
The inhabitants, who amount to about 14,000, are papists, and the exercise of every other worship is prohibited. The priests here have peculiar privileges, which extend even to those who wear a clerical dress.
Most of the peasants possess a small portion of land; and, in consequence of the freedom of the government, are much happier than the people of the Valteline and Chiavenna.
The town of Bormio, the capital, is not unpleasantly situated, at the foot of the mountains, close to the torrent Fredolfo, which falls, at a small distance, into the Adda. It contains about 1000 inhabitants, but has a desolate appearance. The houses are of stone, plastered; a few make a tolerable figure. Amidst many with paper windows, several, like the Italian cottages, have only wooden shutters. The palazzo, or town-house, contains a suit of wretched apartments for the residence of the podesta; a chamber for the courts of judicature; and an apartment, where the representatives of the people assemble. In one of the rooms is an engine of torture, which, in defiance of common sense, as well as humanity, is still used in these countries, to force confession.
The county of Chiavenna came under the sovereignty of the Grisons, in the same manner, and at rhe same time with the Valteline. It lies among high and steep mountains, notwithstanding which some of its vallies are of considerable extent. The summer-heats are frequently excessive. Both the mountains and vallies are well peopled, and the country, in most parts, besides pastures, abounds in all kinds of fruits and wines; and the culture of silk is a very important article. The inhabitants are papists.
Chiavenna, the capital of the county, is situated at the foot, and upon the side of a mountain; and contains about 3000 souls. The inhabitants carry on but little commerce. The principal article of exportation is raw-silk. The great support of this town is the transport of merchandize between the Milanese and Germany.
The principal object of curiosity in the environs of Chiavenna is the fortress, in ruins, seated upon the summit of a rock, which overlooks the town, and is celebrated, in the history of the Grisons, for its almost impregnable strength. The only road which leads up to it is steep and craggy. The walls occupy a large space of ground, and are now partly covered with vines. The strongest part of the fortress was constructed upon an insulated rock. It is on all sides absolutely perpendicular, and its only communication with the castle was by a draw-bridge, thrown across the intervening chasm. Its length is above 250 feet; its height above 200; and its greatest distance from the adjoining rock about 20 feet.
This fortification, though always deemed impregnable, was taken, at different periods, sometimes by assault, but more frequently by famine, or stratagem. It was finally demolished by the Grisons themselves.
Close to Chiavenna is a rock of asbestos, a kind of mineral substance, of a greyish silver colour, which can be drawn out into longitudinal fibres, as fine as thread, and is supposed to be indestructible by fire; the ancients manufactured it into a species of cloth, resembling linen. This species of cloth is frequently mentioned by
Pliny.
It was principally used for shrouds, in which the bodies of the great were enveloped, before they were placed upon the funeral pile; and which, not being liable to be consumed by fire, preserved the ashes of the body separate from those of the wood. The art of weaving the asbestos into linen is not lost, as some authors have asserted; but, as it is very troublesome and expensive, and as the custom of burning bodies, which gave it a value, is no longer in use, the manufacture is discontinued. Besides the rock of asbestos, just mentioned, near Chiavenna, several mountains in these parts yield the same substance. The best sort is found in the valley of Malenco.
About four miles from Chiavenna is the spot formerly occupied by the town of Piuro, or Plurs, which met with a fate something similar to that of Herculaneum, having been totally overwhelmed by the fall of mount Conto, under which it was built. This terrible catastrophe happened August 25, 1618.
Plurs was a large and flourishing town; subject, as well as Chiavenna, to the Grisons. Contemporary writers mention, that it contained three churches, many large houses, and a stone bridge over the Maira; and that its population amounted to at least 1500 inhabitants, who carried on no inconsiderable commerce. The valley in which it was situated is very narrow, and the whole town was buried in one undistinguished ruin. A contemporary account relates, that the cloud of dust and rubbish was so great as to cover the heavens like smoke; and even to extend as far as Chiavenna. The inhabitants of Chiavenna, alarmed at this uncommon phenomena, were still more terrified at the disappearance of the torrent Maira, which suddenly ceased to flow by that town, for near an hour; its course being stopped by the fallen fragments of rock, until it forced its way over the ruins. This event spread such an universal alarm among the inhabitants, from an apprehension that the torrent had undermined Chiavenna, and would burst out with such fury as to deluge the whole place; that great numbers fled precipitately into the mountains.
I walked over the spot, says
Coxe,
where Pluro was built; part of the ancient walls, and the ruins of a country-house, which belonged to the
Franci,
the richest family in the place, are the only remains of its former existence; and these would not be noticed by a passenger. A peasant who has a cottage close to the ruins, pointed out to me every place, as it had been explained to him by his grandfather. He shewed me where stood the churches and principal houses, the channel through which the river then flowed, and where the bridge was constructed. He informed me, that in digging, several dead bodies had been found; and particularly the bones of a priest, covered with shreds of garment, which indicated that he was employed in divine service when the rock overwhelmed the town. Houshold utensils are frequently dug up; the other day several corpses were discovered; and on the finger-bone of one were a silver and two gold rings. Vineyards, chesnut-trees, and houses, cover the spot where this unfortunate town was once situated.
CHAP. XIII.
Vallais.
THIS tract of country, called the Vallais, stretches from east to west, about 100 miles; and contains about 100,000 inhabitants, who all profess the Roman Catholic religion. The country is enclosed within high Alps; and, consisting of plain, elevated vallies, and lofty mountains, must necessarily exhibit a great variety of situations, climates and productions. Accordingly the Vallais presents to the curious traveller a quick succession of prospects, as beautiful as they are diversified. Vineyards, rich pastures, covered with cattle; corn, flax, fruit-trees, and forests, occasionally bordered by naked rocks, the summits of which are crowned with everlasting snow.
As to the productions of the Vallais, they must evidently vary, according to the great diversity of climates by which this country is so peculiarly distinguished. It supplies more than sufficient wine and corn for interior consumption; and indeed a considerable quantity of both are yearly exported; the soil in the midland and lower districts being exceedingly rich and fertile. In the plain, where the heat is collected, and confined between the mountains, the harvest is usually finished in July; but, in the more elevated parts, barley is the only grain that can be cultivated with any success; and the crop is seldom cut before November. About Sion, the fig, the melon, and all the other fruits of Italy, come to perfection. In consequence of this singular variety, says
Coxe,
I tasted, in the same day, strawberries, cherries, plums, pears, and grapes, each of them the natural growth of the country.
This country is divided into Upper and Lower Vallais. The Upper Vallais is sovereign of the Lower Vallais, and comprizes seven independent commonwealths. The bishop of Sion was formerly absolute sovereign over the greatest part of the Vallais; but his authority is at present very much limited.
The republic of the Vallais, is an ally of the thirteen cantons, and has formed a particular league with the seven catholic cantons, for the defence of their common religion.
With respect to manufactures, there are none of any of consequence, and indeed the general ignorance of the people is no less remarkable than their indolence, so that they may be considered in regard to knowledge and improvements, as some centuries behind the Swiss, who are certainly a very enlightened nation. The peasants seldom endeavour to meliorate those lands, where the soil is originally bad, nor to draw the most advantage from those, which are uncommonly fertile; having few wants, and being satisfied with the spontaneous gifts of nature, they enjoy her blessings, without considering much, in what manner to improve them.
The inhabitants of the Vallais, are very much subject to goiters, or large excressences of flesh that grow from the throat, and often encrease to a most enormous size: but what is more extraordinary, idiocy also remarkably abounds among them. I saw many instances of both kinds, says
Coxe,
as I passed through Sion, (capital of Vallais): some idiots even basking in the sun, with their tongues out, and their heads hanging down, exhibiting the most affecting spectacle of intellectual imbecility, that can possibly be conceived.
It is said, that the common people very much respect these idiots, and even consider them as blessings. They call them Souls of God, without sin; and many parents prefer these idiot children, to those whose understandings are perfect; because as they are incapable of intentional criminality, they consider them as certain of happiness in a future state. Nor is this opinion entirely without its good effect, as it disposes the parents to pay greater attention to such helpless beings. Thus idiots are suffered to marry, as well among themselves, as with others.
The notion that snow-water occasions goiters, is certainly void of foundation, these guttural rumours are to be found in the environs of Naples, in the island of Sumatra, and at Patna and Purnea, in the East Indies, where snow is unknown. The primary cause of these excrescences, are the springs that supply drink to the natives, and which are impregnated with a calcareous matter, called in Switzerland,
tuf,
nearly similar to the incrustations of Matlock, in Derbyshire, where may be seen goitrous persons, as well as in Switzerland.
The pipes which convey water to the public fountain at Berne, are extremely clogged with this calcareous sediment; and a gentleman, says
Coxe,
on whose sincerity I can depend, assured me, that he is subject to a small swelling in the throat, which usually increases in winter, when he is chiefly resident at Berne, and diminishes in summer, on his removal to other places, where the waters are not loaded with
tuf.
I was also informed by General
Biffer,
says he, that at Lucerne, all waters, excepting one spring, are impregnated with
tuf,
and that the natives who dwell near that spring, are much less subject to goiters, than the other inhabitants; that the same difference is observed among the members of the same family; between those who drink no water, but what is drawn from that spring, and others who do not use that precaution. The General shewed me also the tin vessel, in which water was every morning boiled for his use, and which was so speedily and thickly incrustated, as to render it necessary to have it cleared twice a week. The water which yields this deposition, is as transparent as chrystal.
But a still stronger proof in favour of this opinion, is derived from the following facts: A surgeon whom I met at the baths of Leuk, informed me, that he had not unfrequently extracted concretions of tuf-stone from several goiters; and that from one in particular, which suppurated, he had taken several flat pieces, each about half an inch long. He added, that the same substance is found in the stomachs of cows, and in the goitrous tumours to which even the dogs of the country are subject. The same gentleman, says
Coxe,
assured me, that in the course of his extensive practice, he had diminished and cured the goiters of many young persons by emollient liquors, and external applications; that his principal method, in order to prevent them in future, consisted in removing the patients from the places where the springs are impregnated with tuf; and if that could not be contrived, by forbidding the use of water which was not purified. He remarked, that one of his own children, had at its birth, a goiter as large as an egg, although neither he, nor his wife, who were both foreigners, were afflicted with that malady. He had dissipated it by external remedies, and since that period, had invariably prohibited his family from tasting the spring-waters, unless they were distilled, or mixed with wine and vinegar; by which means, he was able to preserve them from those tumours in the throat, that were extremely common among the natives of the town which he inhabited.
M. de Saussure,
whose accurate researches and profound investigation on philosophical subjects, deserves to be weighed with great attention, attributes the production of goiters, not to the waters, but principally to the concentrated heat of the climate, and the stagnation of the air. He informs us, that in all his travels through the Alpine countries, he never observed goiters in any places which are elevated, more than between 3 or 4,000 feet above the level of the sea; that he noticed them in those vallies where the heat is concentrated, and the air stagnated; and that they usually cease, wherever the valley terminates, and the country expands into a large plain. With great defference to his opinion, it may, however, be remarked, that in places considerably elevated above the level of the sea, the springs are too near their sources, to have dissolved a sufficient quantity of calcareous matter, as may be requisite for the generation of goiters.
The same causes which generate goiters, probably operate in the case of idiots: for whenever the former prevails to a considerable degree, the latter invariably abound. Such being the nice and inexplicable connection between our bodies and our minds, that the one ever sympathises with the other; it is by no means an ill-grounded conjecture, that the same causes which affect the body, should also affect the mind; or, in other words, that the same waters which create obstructions and goiters, should also occasion mental imbecillity and disarrangement.
It is to be presumed, that a people accustomed to these excrescences, will not be shocked at their deformity; but I do not find, adds
Coxe,
as some writers assert, that they consider them as beauties. To judge from the accounts of many travellers, it might be supposed, that the natives, without exception, were either idiots or goiters; but in fact, the Vallaisans in general, are a robust race; and all that with truth can be affirmed, is, that goitrous persons and idiots, are more abundant in some districts of the Vallais, than perhaps in any other part of the globe.
Sion is the principal town in this canton, and that not of any note; it was formerly the capital of the Seduni, who inhabited this part of the country, in the time of
Julius Caesar.
It is here that the Diet assembles. On seeing the apartments where they meet, I was greatly struck with their plainness, says
Coxe,
and could not avoid reflecting with pleasure, on the simplicity of manners, which must necessarily prevail in this country; when the rooms inhabited by the sovereign, instead of bespeaking the magnificence of a court, are scarcely superior to the dwelling of a peasant.
Leuk is another small town, or rather village, in this canton, built upon an eminence near the Rhone, and famous for its hot medicinal springs: it is much frequented during the summer, by invalids of various kinds: the patients either bathe or drink the waters.
The accommodations for company, are very inconvenient: each person having for his own use, a small apartment, not more than a few feet square, in which there is just room for a bed, a table, and two chairs. The public dining-room, is upon rather a larger scale, as is also an apartment where the company occasionally assemble. Formerly, the accommodations were tolerably good; but unfortunately, in 1719, an
avalanche
fell with such impetuosity from a neighbouring glacier, upon the village, as to overwhelm the greatest part of the houses, and the baths, and to destroy a considerable number of the inhabitants. The
avalanche
is a large body of snow, which precipitates itself from the top of a mountain, with a noise like the sound of thunder, and in its descent, has the appearance of a torrent of water, reduced almost into spray. The
avalanches,
(as they are called) are sometimes attended with the most fatal consequences; for where they consist of enormous masses, they destroy every thing in their course; and not unfrequently, as in the case of Leuk, overwhelm even whole villages. The best preservative against their effects, being the forests, with which the Alps abound, there is scarcely a village, if situated at the foot of a mountain, that is not sheltered by trees; which the inhabitants preserve with uncommon reverence. Thus what constitutes one of the principal beauties in the country, affords also security to the people.
As far as I can judge, says
Coxe,
speaking of these waters, from the accounts which I have received, concerning their warmth, their analysis, the method of using them, and their efficacy in curing the gout, rheumatism, obstructions, and cutaneous disorders; they seem nearly to resemble those of Bath.
The situation is much more romantic, and the waters perhaps not less efficacious; and yet this village contains only a few miserable houses, whilst Bath is one of the finest towns in Europe. I had a conversation on this topic, with a very ingenious and well-informed gentleman of the Vallais: and observed to him, that considering the great credit and efficacy of these waters, I could not forbear wondering that the chiefs of the republic had not considered the improvement of the accommodations, an object worthy of their attention; for, if they were rendered more convenient for the reception of invalids, it would be the means of drawing a great number of strangers; and must be highly beneficial to the country. He assured me, that it had been more than once in contemplation; that some persons of great credit and authority, opposed all improvements upon a principle, similar to the policy of
Lycurgus;
conceiving that a concourse of strangers would only serve to introduce luxury among the inhabitants, and insensibly destroy that simplicity of manners, for which the Vallaisans are so remarkably distinguished.
PLAN
of the CITY of GENEVA.
A
General Hospital
B
Church
C
St . Peter Church
D
The Magdalen Church
E
St . Germain Church
F
Town Hall
G
Castle
H
Ordinary Arsenal
N
Riding House
O
C
a
er of the Publick
P
Discipline Prison
Q
The Biblioteque or Library
R
The College
S
Publick Fountain
T
The
Corn Store House
U
Powder Magazine
W
Market
X
Custom House
Y
Fu
er
e Church
Z
Publick Pump
1
French Ambassadors House
2
Publick Walk
3
New Gate
4
Cannon Arsenal
5
Ice House
6
The Mint
7
The Foundery
8
Lutherans Meeting House
9
P
e House
10
Lake Gate
11
Tower
12
Cornevin Gate
13
St . Gervais Temple
14
Hydraulicks Machine
15
Rive Gate
16
Viton Stone
17
Molard Place
18
The Trei
e Walk
19
Mourvecus Hospital
20
Pi
e
Mill
21
Hospital Mill
22
Chaudon Mill
CHAP. XIV.
Geneva.
THIS city placed in the confines of France, of Savoy, and of Switzerland, and properly belonging to none of these, ought not to be omitted. Its territory is inconsiderable, for the space within its walls forms the most considerable part of the republic.
The situation of this little capital, on the borders of the lake Leman, is delightful; the prospects around it are rich and variegated; the country is admirably cultivated, and the horizon is bounded by the majestic scenery of the Alps, Mount Blanc, and the chain of Jura.
The greatest part of the town, stands upon a hill, and has its views bounded on all sides, by several ranges of mountains, which are, however, at so great a distance, that they leave open a wonderful variety of fine prospects. The situation of these mountains, has some particular effects on the country which they enclose. At first, they cover it from all winds, except the north and south. 'Tis to the last of these winds, that the inhabitants of Geneva ascribe the healthfulness of the air; for as the Alps surround them on all sides, they form a vast kind of bason, where there would be a constant stagnation of vapours, the country being so well watered, did not the north wind put them in motion, and scatter them from time to time. Another effect the Alps have on Geneva, is, that the sun here rises later, and sets sooner, than it does in other places of the same latitude. I have often observed, says
Addison,
that the top of the neighbouring mountains have been covered with light above half an hour after the sun is down, visible to those who live at Geneva. These mountains likewise, very much increase their summer heats, and make up an horizon that has something in it very singular and agreeable. On one side, is the long tract of hills, that goes under the name of Mount Jura, and covered with vineyards and pasturage, and on the other, huge precipices of naked rocks, rising up in a thousand odd figures, and cleft in some places, so as to discover high mountains of snow, that lie several leagues behind them. Towards the south, the hills rise more insensibly, and leave the eye a vast uninterrupted prospect for many miles. But the most beautiful view of all, is the lake, and the borders that lie north of the town.
This city, says
Grossley,
is remarkable for its situation, independence, religion, and commerce: formerly it stood only on that hill, which is the key of lake Leman, at the part where the Rhone issues out of that lake; and this river was its principal defence: like all ancient towns built on mountains, it has gradually sunk down into the level, so that the afflux of the Rhone is now within its circuit. In its primitive situation, it enjoyed a very healthy air, with a view of the whole lake, which it commanded, and at the same time, all the advantages arising from the lake, either for the necessaries of life, or the convenience of trade; but by removing into the level, it has lost the defence of the Rhone, and plunged itself amidst the continual fogs and vapours of the lake.
Geneva is by far the most populous town in Switzerland; and contains 24,000 souls. This superiority of numbers, is undoubtedly owing to the great industry and activity of the inhabitants; to its more extensive commerce; to the facility of purchasing the burghership; and to the privileges which government allows to all foreigners.
The liberal policy of this government, in receiving strangers, and conferring the burghership on them, is the more remarkable, as it is contrary to the spirit and usage of the Swiss. It is here, indeed, more necessary; the territory of the state being so exceedingly small, that its very existence depends upon the number and industry of the people; for exclusive of the city, there are scarcely 16,000 souls in the whole district of the Genevois.
To a man of letters, says
Coxe,
Geneva is particularly interesting: learning is diverted of pedantry and philosophy, and united with a knowledge of the world. The pleasures of society, are mixed with the pursuits of literature; and elegance and urbanity give a zest to the profoundest disquisitions. Nor are letters confined in this city, merely to those who engage in them as a profession, or to those whose fortune and leisure enable them to follow, where genius leads. Even the lower class of people, are exceedingly well informed; and there is perhaps no city in Europe, where luxury is more universally diffused. We are at first astonished, adds the above writer, to find in this class of men, so uncommon a share of knowledge. But the wonder ceases, when we are told that all of them were educated at the public academy, where the children of the citizens are taught, under the inspection of the magistrates, and at the expence of government.
The citizens enjoy also the advantage of having access to the public library; and by this privilege, they not only retain, but improve that general tincture of learning, which they imbibe in their early youth.
This library contains 25,000 volumes of many curious manuscripts, of which, an accurate and learned catalogue has been lately published by the Rev.
M. Sennebier,
the librarian. He has attempted to determine the ages of the several manuscripts, he describes their form and size, the materials on which they are written, the ornaments, the characteristic phrases, and mentions the proofs on which he grounds the opinion. He adds also the notes, and distinguishes those which have never been printed.
The streets are in general wide, clean, and well paved: the principal street, however, is encumbered with a row of shops on each side, between the carriage and foot-way; which last, is very wide, and protected from the weather, by great wooden pent-houses, projecting from the roofs; these are very convenient, but give the street a dark and dull appearance. The houses are generally built of free-stone, with lime stone basements: the gutters, spouts, ridges, and outward ornaments, are of
fer blanc,
which we improperly call tin.
The maison de ville, or town-house, is a large, plain, ancient building; with great rooms for the council to assemble in, and for public entertainments; in one of them, there is a weekly concert by subscription, during the winter seaso. The ascent to the upper story, is not by steps, but by a paved slope, so gentle, that horses and mules easily go up and down.
There are five churches here, besides French, Italian, and German chapels; none of them, however, have any thing to attract attention, except
S. Peter's,
formerly the cathedral. This is an ancient gothic building, with a modern portico of seven large columns of red and white marble, and of the Corinthian order. The inside is plain, and the only thing observable, is the tomb of
Henry
Duke of Rohan.
The arsenal is in good order, and furnished with arms for 12,000 men. Here are also many ancient suits of armour, and the scaling ladders, lanthorns, hatchets, standards, &c. recall to the friends of liberty, the abortive attempt of the Savoyards upon the city, in the year 1602. In the magazine, they they have 110 cannons and mortars.
The hospital is a large, handsome building. Near 4,000 poor are maintained by this and the French purse.
The public fountains are supplied by an hydraulic machine, which raises the water from the river, above 100 Paris feet.
The Treille, or public walks, consists of lime-trees, and being on an eminence, affords a charming prospect of the large gardens beneath it, and of the fields and meadows towards the mountains. One of the most stately houses, of which there are several very magnificent fronting these walls, formerly belonged to an ecclesiastic, and is said to have cost him near 20,000 pounds.
The fortifications are in the modern style on the side of Savoy, but are commanded by some of the neighbouring ground. On the side of France, they are old fashioned. They are calculated rather to prevent a surprize, than to sustain a regular siege. They have three gates towards France, Savoy, and Switzerland. All access by the lake is barred by a double jettee and chain. The garrison consists of 720 men, Swiss, or Germans. A guard of four companies is changed every day at noon, one of the syndics giving the word of command. One company does duty at each gate, and the fourth mounts guard at the town-hall.
We must not omit observing, that Geneva has partly realized
Swift's
project, in his great mystery, or art of meditating in a house of office. On that part of the lake which faces the upper town, very large easements have been lately built, divided into seats, with slight partitions on each side, most of them about elbow high, as Doctor
Swift
directs, for the convenience of conversation. I went there, says
Grossley,
one morning, and taking my seat in the centre, shared in a very sprightly conversation, among several women, some of whom were busy, and others waiting their turn.
Since the late troubles, a theatre has been built within the city. The only public diversions besides this, are two concerts. Private balls are not unfrequent, and plays are sometimes performed by gentlemen and ladies. The chief amusement is cards, at which the women constantly play in their societies and assemblies. In fine weather, there is a great resort to the Treille, and other public walks.
The dress of the men at Geneva, is chiefly broad cloth, without lace or trimmings, except frogs; that of the women, is silk in winter, and printed cotton, which they call
Indiennes
in summer.
The revenues of government, are about 500,000 French livres, or little more than 20,000 pounds sterling. This is raised from the domains of the state, tenths, quit-rents, fines, or alienations, a tax on personaal effects, a poll-tax, customs and duties on goods, entering or passing through the city, to
ls at bridges, &c. The salaries of the syndics, are between 70 and 80 pounds. Members of the little council have 45 pounds. The garrison costs 130,000 livres. Repairs of the public buildings, fortifications and roads, charges of the police, &c. make up the rest of the annual expences.
The government is of a mixed kind: the legislative power resides in the general assembly of the citizens; consisting of about 1500: the executive, in the magistrates, who consist of a council of 24, which nominates the moiety of the grand-council, out of which four syndics are annually chosen by the general assembly.
The law of the state, is the Roman law, with some modifications: they have not titles of nobility, or hereditary dignities.
For the support of credit, it is enacted by an express law, that no son who does not discharge his fathers debts, shall be capable of any office.
Geneva also has some peculiar ordinances concerning matrimony. No marriage is allowed of, unless both parties be of the protestant religion; all previous promises or engagements of a
reformed,
with a
Roman Catholic,
are declared void, and of none effect; and the agents of those who have given their consent to it, are punishable, according to the nature of the circumstances. A woman of 40 years of age, cannot marry a man who is ten years younger than herself; if above 40, her choice is confined to five years younger. A man of 60, is not to marry a woman who is not at least half that age. A widow must remain such at least six months before she can alter her condition. In this point, a man is not limited to any particular time; but, however, he is enjoined to wait a reasonable time, with this singular addition, which is not found in other laws, "Both to obviate scandal, and to shew that he hath felt the hand of God."
The maintenance of a good police, and the suppression of luxury, is the province of a particular court; but a very extraordinary fund here, is that arising from the dirt of the streets. In other places, money is payed for carrying it away, whereas, here it is farmed for 800 livres, paid to the city for the exclusive privilege of taking it away for manuring land.
It is the custom in Geneva and Switzerland, for men to divide their estates equally among all their children, by which means, every one lives at his ease, without growing dangerous to the republic; for as soon as an overgrown estate falls into the hands of one that has many children, it is broken into so many portions, as render the shares of it rich enough, without raising them too much above the level of the rest. This is absolutely necessary in these little republics, where the rich merchants live very much within their estates, and by heaping up vast sums from year to year, might become formidable to their fellow-citizens, and break the equality, which is so necessary in these kinds of governments, were there not means found out to distribute their wealth among several members of their republic. At Geneva for instance, are merchants worth 100,000 pounds, though perhaps, there is not one of them who spends to the value of 500 pounds a year.
Geneva has but little land belonging to it, so that the corn it yields, not being sufficient for supplying the inhabitants of the republic; and the regular importation of it from the neighbouring countries, being liable to be interrupted by bad harvests, contagious distempers, or wars; for preventing a scarcity, large granaries have been built at the public expence. In these are continually kept 90,000 quintals of corn, which is computed to suffice for two years. But no person is obliged to purchase their corn from this store-house, as at Rome, where every one must repair to his Holiness's granary, who sells the corn at double the price it cost; and whoever has corn to dispose of, must deliver it in at a very unreasonable low rate. Bakers, inn-keepers, the garrison, the city-artificers, and labourers employed by the city, are the only persons under any obligation to provide themselves with corn from the republic of Geneva's granary. This consumption takes off yearly, about 16,000 quintals; and the intent of it is not so much the small gain which accrues to the city from a very moderate advance of the price, but thus by regularly giving out the corn every six years, the entire stock is removed.
CHAP. XV.
Of the Character, Manners, and Customs of the Citizens of Geneva.
THEY told me here, says
Sherlock,
that all the girls were chaste, and I believed them, for I am naturally a very credulous man. There are some reasons which might tempt a traveller, less simple than myself, to suspect the contrary. There is no playhouse, nor any public amusement in the city of Geneva; and reading is the only resource against
ennui.
In consequence of this, a number of booksellers lend books by the month, at a very low price. The first acquaintance I generally make in a town, is that of a bookseller; and during half an hour that I was talking with one, the day after my arrival there, in came three girls, one after another, to hire the
New Heloise.
Pray, said I, to the bookseller, what is the general reading of this country? Young people, says he, like books with fine sentiments; women a little mature, prefer those which are light and brilliant. He appeared to me, to have unfolded his nation by this trait; the girls all enamoured of
Rousseau,
the women all admirers of
Voltaire.
Yes, thought I, the thing is clear; they begin, by imitating
Eloisa;
and when their
S. Preux
forsakes them, or the devil begins to frighten them, they read
Voltaire
to give them courage and spirits. By no means—I guessed like a fool. The girls are all virtuous; there never was one suspected; and what makes this miracle still more astonishing, is, that they have leave to go out by themselves in the morning, and they avail themselves of it every day.
The Genevese thinks, that he is somewhat like the ancient Romans, as a petty prince in Germany thinks he resembles
Lewis
the Fourteenth. The tradesman of this country, is of all men, he who imposed upon me most; and he cheats with an insolence, equal to his baseness. I saw few people of the first class; but those I did see, appeared to me amiable, sensible, and well informed. The men in general, wish to pass for wits; the women, for free-thinkers. Such are
Sherlock's
concise remarks on the manners of the inhabitants in this little republic.
The conversation of the Genevese in general, says
Grossley,
has more of the German in it, than of the French: among men, it is carried on in clubs, who hire a chamber, where they resort in an evening, to smoke, talk politics, and chat about their private concerns, and the news of the city. The Italian reserve, and German phlegm, prevail in their conversation, not only among themselves, but with foreigners; if some few have any tincture of French manners, it is by imitating the politeness of the inhabitants of Dauphiné. But how ill they succeed in their attempts to imitate the manners of the French, or even the English, the following humourous dialogue, which
Moore
had with a French hair-dresser at Geneva, will sufficiently shew. A very genteel young man, a Genevois, happened t
call on me, says this writer, while a French
friseur
was with me. The young gentleman had passed some time at Paris, and was dressed exactly in the Parisian taste. "He has much the air of one of your countrymen," said I to the Frenchman, as soon as the other had left the room.
'"Mon dieu! quelle difference,"
cried the friseur. 'For my part I can see none," said I.
"Monsieur,"
resumed he,
"soyez persuadé, qu'aucun Genevois ne sera jamais pris pour un Francois."
"There are certainly some
petit maitres
to be found in this town," said I.
"Pardonez moi,"
replied he,
"ils ne sont que petit maitres manqués.
"Did you ever see an Englishman," said I, "who might pass for a Frenchman?"
"Jamais de la vie,"
replied he with an accent of astonishment.
"Suppose him," said I, "a man of quality?"
N'importe.
"
"But," continued I, "suppose he had lived several years at Paris, that he was naturally very handsome, and well made, that he had been educated by the best French dancing master, his clothes made by the best French taylor, and his hair dressed by the most eminent friseur in Paris?"
"Cest beaucoup, Monsieur, mais ce n'est pas assez."
"What!" exclaimed I, "would you still know him to be an Englishman!"
"Assurément, Monsieur."
"What! before he spoke!"
"Au premier coup d'oeil Monsieur."
"The devil you would? but how?
"C'est que Messieurs les Anglois ont un air—une maniére de se présenter—un que sais—Je moi—vous méntendez bien, Monsieur—un certain air si gau—."
"Quel air maraud?" "Enfin un air qui est charmant, si vous voulez, Monsieur,"
said he rapidly,
"mais que le diable m'emporte, si cest l'air Francois."
As education here, says
Moore,
in his account of their customs and manners, is equally cheap and liberal, the citizens of Geneva of both sexes, are remarkably well instructed. No country in the world, can perhaps produce an equal number of persons, taken collectively from all classes and professions, with minds so much cultivated, as the inhabitants of Geneva possess.
It is not uncommon to find mechanics, in the intervals of their labour, amusing themselves with the works of
Locke, Montesquieu,
and other productions of the same kind. The clergy of Geneva, in general, are men of sense, learning, and moderation, impressing upon the minds of their hearers the tenets of Christianity, with all the grace of pulpit-eloquence; and illustrating the efficacy of the doctrine by their conduct in life. The people of every station, in this place, attend sermons and the public worship, with remarkable punctuality. The Sunday is honoured with the most respectful decorum, during the hours of divine service; but, as soon as that is over, all the usual amusements commence.
The public walks are crowded by all degrees of people, in their best dresses. The different societies, and what they call
circles,
assemble in the houses and gardens of individuals. They play at cards and at bowls, and have parties upon the lake, with music.
There is one custom universal here, which, perhaps, is peculiar to this town. The parents form societies for their children at a very early period of their lives. These societies consist of 10, 12, or more children, of the same age, and situation in life. They assemble once a week, in the houses of the different parents, who entertain the company by turns, with tea, coffee, biscuits, and fruit; and then leave the young assembly to the freedom of their own conversation. This connection is strictly kept up through life, whatever alterations may take place in the situations or circumstances of the individuals; and although they should afterwards form new or preferable intimacies, they never entirely abandon this society; but to the latest periods of their lives, continue to pass a few evenings every year with the companions of their youth, and their earliest friends.
The richer class of the citizens have country-houses adjacent to the town, where they pass one half of the year. These houses are, all of them, neat; and some of them splendid. One piece of magnificence they possess in greater perfection than the most superb villa of the greatest lord in any other part of the world can boast; that is, the prospect which almost all of them command. The gardens and vineyards of the republic;—the Pays de Vaud;—Geneva, with its lake;—innumerable country-seats, castles, and little towns, round the lake;—the vallies of Savoy, and the loftiest mountains of the Alps, all within one sweep of the eye.
Those whose fortunes or employments do not permit them to pass the summer in the country, make frequent parties of pleasure upon the lake; and dine, and spend the evening at some of the villages in the environs, where they amuse themselves with music and dancing.
Sometimes they form themselves into circles consisting of 40 or 50 persons, and purchase or hire a house and gardens near the town, where they assemble every afternoon during the summer, drink coffee, lemonade, and other refreshing liquors; and amuse themselves with cards, conversation, and playing at bowls; a game very different from that which goes by the same name in England; for here, instead of a smooth, level green, they often choose the roughest, and most unequal piece of ground. The player, instead of rolling the bowl, throws it in such a manner that it rests in the place where it first touches the ground; and if that be a fortunate situation, the next player pitches his bowl directly on his adversary's, so as to make that spring away, while his own fixes itself in the spot from which the other has been dislodged. Some of the citizens are astonishingly dexterous at this game, which is more complicated and interesting than the English manner of playing. They generally continue their circle till the dusk of the evening, and the sound of the drum from the ramparts calls to the town; and at that time the gates are shut, after which no person can enter or go out; the officer of the guard not having the power to open them, without an order from the syndics which is not to be attained but on some great emergency.
This custom had its rise ever since the year 1602, when the Duke of
Savoy
made an attempt to seize upon the town. He marched an army, in the middle of a dark night, in the time of peace, to the gates, applied scaling-ladders to the ramparts and walls; and having surprised the centinels, several hundred of the Savoyard soldiers had actually got into the town, and the rest were following, when they were at length discovered by a woman, who gave the alarm.
The Genevoise started from their sleep, seized the readiest arms they could find, attacked the assailants with spirit and energy, killed numbers in the streets, drove them out of the gates, or tumbled them over the ramparts; and the few who were taken prisoners, they beheaded next morning, without further process or ceremony.
The Genevese annually distinguish the day on which this memorable exploit was performed, as a day of public thanksgiving and rejoicing.
It is called,
le jour de l'escalade.
There is divine worship in all the churches. The clergymen, on this occasion, after sermon, recapitulate all the circumstances of this interesting event; put the audience in mind of the gratitude they owe to Divine Providence, and to the valour of their ancestors, which saved them in so remarkable a manner from civil and religious bondage; enumerate the peculiar blessings which they enjoy, and exhort them, in the most pathetic strain, to watch over their liberties, remain steady in their religion, and transmit these, and all their other advantages, unimpaired to posterity.
The evening of this day is spent in visiting, feasting, dancing, and all kinds of diversions.
Though the state keeps in pay a body of mercenaries, they do not trust the safety of the republic to these alone. All citizens of Geneva are soldiers. They are exercised several hours daily, for two months every summer, during which time they wear their uniforms, and at the end of that period are reviewed by the syndics.
Geneva, like all free states, is exposed to party-rage, and the public harmony is frequently interrupted by political squabbles. One part of the citizens are accused of wishing to throw all the power into the hands of a few families, and of establishing a complete aristocracy. The other opposes every measure which is supposed to have that tendency; and by their adversaries are accused of seditious designs.
It is difficult for strangers, who reside any considerable time at Geneva, to observe a strict neutrality. The English, in particular, are exceedingly disposed to take part with one side or other. Among the citizens, themselves, political altercations are carried on with great fire and spirit. A worthy old gentleman, says
Moore,
in whose house I had been often entertained with great hospitality, declaiming warmly against certain measures of the council, asserted, that all those who had promoted them merited death; and if it depended on him they should all be hanged without loss of time. His brother, who was in that predicament, interrupted him, and said, in a tone of voice which seemed to beg for mercy, Good brother! surely you would not push your resentment so far!—You would not actually hang them! Yes, certainly; replied the patriot, with a determined countenance, and you, my dear brother, should be hung first, to shew my impartiality.
Although this republic has long continued in a profound peace, and there is no probability of its being soon engaged in any bloody conflict, yet the citizens of Geneva are not the less fond of the pomp of war.
This appears in what they call their military feasts, which are their most favourite amusements, and which they take every opportunity of enjoying. I was present, says
Moore,
at a very grand entertainment of this kind, which was given by the King of of the Arquebusiers, upon his accession to the royal dignity. This envied rank is neither transmitted by hereditary right, nor obtained by election; but gained by skill and real merit.
A war with this state, like the war of Troy, must necessarily consist of a siege. The skilful use of the cannon and arquebuse, is therefore thought to be of the greatest importance. During several months every year, a considerable number of the citizens are almost constantly employed in firing at a mark, placed at a proper distance. Any citizen has a right, at a small expence, to make trial of his skill in this way; and, after a due number of trials, the most expert marksman is declared king.
There has not been a coronation of this kind these ten years, his late Majesty having kept peaceable possession of the throne during that period. But at last, another person was found to excel in skill every competitor; and was raised to the throne by the unanimous voice of the judges. He was attended to his own house from the field of contest, by the syndics, amidst the acclamation of the people. Some time after this, on the day of his feast, a camp was formed on a plain, without the gates of the city. Here the whole forces of the republic, both horse and foot, were assembled and divided into two distinct armies. They were to perform a battle in honour of his Majesty, all the combatants having previously studied their parts. This very ingenious, warlike drama had been composed by one of the reverend ministers, who is said to possess a very extensive military genius. That the ladies, and people of distinction, who were not actually engaged, might view the action with the greater ease and safety, a large amphitheatre of seats was prepared for them, at a convenient distance from the field of battle.
Every thing being in readiness, the syndics, the council, strangers of distinction, and relations and favourites of the king, assembled at his Majesty's palace, a little snug house, situated in a narrow lane, in the lower part of the city. From the palace they marched in procession, through the city, with his Majesty at their head, and preceded by a band of music, who played, as may be supposed, the most martial tunes they could possibly think of. When this company came to the field where the troops were drawn up, they were saluted by the officers; and, having made a complete circuit of both armies, the king and all his attendants took their seats at the amphitheatre, which had been prepared for the purpose.
The impatience of the troops had been very visible for some time. When the king was seated, their ardour could no longer be restrained. They called loudly to their officers to lead them to glory. The signal was given. They advanced to the attack, in the most undaunted manner; conscious that they fought under the eyes of their king, the syndics, their wives, children, mothers, and grandmothers, they disdained the thoughts of retreat. They stood undisturbed by the thickest fire, and smiled at the roaring of the cannon.
The ingenious author of the battle had taken care to diversify it with several entertaining incidents. An ambuscade was placed by one of the armies, behind some trees, to surprize the enemy. This succeeded to a miracle, although the ambuscade was posted in the sight of both armies, and all the spectators.
A convoy with provision, advancing towards one of the armies, was attacked by a detachment from the other; and, after a smart skirmish, one half of the waggons was carried away by the assailants: the other remained with the troops for whom they seemed to have been originally intended.
A wooden bridge was briskly attacked, and as resolutely defended, but at length was trodden to pieces by both armies; for in the fury of the fight, the combatants forgot whether this poor bridge was their friend or their foe. By what means it got into the midst of the battle is not easy to conceive; for there was neither river, brook, nor ditch, in the whole field.
The cavalry, on both sides, performed wonders. It was difficult to determine which of the generals distinguished himself most. They were both dressed in clothes exuberantly covered with lace (for the sumptuary laws were suspended for this day) that the battle might be as magnificent as possible. As neither of these gallant commanders would consent to the being defeated, the reverend author of the engagement could not make the catastrophe so decisive and affecting as he intended.
While victory, with equipoised wings, hovered over both armies, a messenger arrived from the town-hall, with intelligence that dinner was ready. This news quickly spread among the combatants, and had an effect similar to that which the Sabine women produced, when they rushed between their ravishers and their relations. The warriors of Geneva relented at once; and both armies suspended their animosity in the contemplation of that which they both loved. They threw down their arms, shook hands, and were friends.
Thus ended the battle: the same company which had attended the king to the field of battle, marched with him in procession from thence, to the maison de ville, where a sumptuous entertainment was prefered. This was exactly the reverse of a fête champetre, being held in the town-house, and in the middle of the streets adjacent; where tables were covered, and dinner provided for several hundreds of the officers and soldiers.
The king, the syndics, most of the members of the council, and all the strangers, dined in the town-hall. The other rooms, as well as the outward court, were likewise full of company. There was much greater havoc at dinner, than had been at the battle, and the entertainment in other respects, was nearly as warlike. A kettle-drum was placed in the middle of the hall, upon which a martial flourish was performed at every toast. This was immediately answered by the drums and trumpets without the hall, and the cannon of the bastion. Prosperity to the republic, is a favourite toast;—When this was announced by the first syndic, all the company stood up with their swords drawn in one hand, and glasses filled with wine in the other. Having drank the toast, they clashed their swords, a ceremony always in every circle or club, where there is a public dinner, as often as this particular toast is named. It is an old custom, and implies that every man is ready to fight in defence of the republic.
After we had been about two hours at table, a new ceremony took place. An hundred grenadiers, with their swords drawn, marched with great solemnity into the middle of the hall, for the tables being placed in the form of a horse-shoe, there was vacant space in the middle, sufficient to admit them. They desired permission to give a toast: this being granted, each of the grenadiers, by a well-timed movement, like a motion in the exercise, pulled from his pocket a large water-glass, which being immediately filled with wine, one of the soldiers, in the name of all, drank a health to King
Moses
the First. (Moses was the christian name of the new king). His example was followed by his companions, and all the company, and was instantly honoured by the sound of drums, trumpets, and artillery. When the grenadiers had drank this, and a toast or two more, they wheeled about, and marched out of the hall with the same solemnity, with which they had entered, resuming their places at the tables in the streets. Soon after this, a man fantastically dressed, entered the hall, and distributed among the company, some printed sheets, which seemed to have come directly from the press. This proved to be a song, made for the occasion, replete with gaiety, wit, and good sense; pointing out, in a humourous strain, the advantages which the citizens of Geneva possessed and exhorting them to unanimity, industry, and public spirit. This ditty was sung by the man who brought it, while many of the company joined in the chorus.
When we descended from the town-hall, we found the soldiers intermingled with their officers, still seated at the table in the streets, and encircled by their wives and children. They all arose soon after, and dividing into different companies, repaired to the ramparts, the fields, and the gardens, where, with music and dancing, they continued in high glee, during the rest of the evening.
The whole exhibition of the day, though no very just representation of the manoeuvres of war, or the elegance of a court entertainment, formed the most lively picture of jollity, mirth, good humour, and cordiality that could possibly be seen. The inhabitants of a whole city;—nay, of a whole state, united in one scene of good fellowship, like a single family, is surely no common sight.
There are some of the citizens of Geneva, who deride the little military establishment of the republic, and declare it to be highly ridiculous in such a feeble state, to presume that they could defend themselves. The very idea of resistance against Savoy or France, they hold as absurd. They seem to take pleasure in mortifying their countrymen, assuring them, that in case of an attack, all their efforts would be fruitless, and their garrison unable to stand a siege of ten days.
These politicians declaim against the needless expence of keeping the fortifications in repair, and they calculate the money lost, by so many manufacturers being employed in wielding useless firelocks, instead of the tools of their respective professions. Were I a member of this republic, I should have no patience with these discouraging malcontents, who endeavour to depress the minds of their countrymen, and embitter a source of real enjoyment.
The garrison, small as it is, aided by the zeal of the inhabitants, and regulated by that share of discipline, which their situation admits, would be sufficient to secure them from a coup de main, or any immediate insult, and might enable them to defend the town from the attempts of any one of the neighbouring states, till they should receive succour from some of the others. Independent of these considerations, the ramparts are most agreeable walks, convenient for the inhabitants, and ornamental to the city. The exercising and reviewing the militia, form an innocent and agreeable spectacle to the women and children, contribute to the health and amusement of the troops themselves, and inspire the inhabitants in general, with the pleasing ideas of security, and of their own importance. Upon the whole, the fortifications and the militia of Geneva, produce more happiness in these various ways taken together, than could be purchased by all the money they cost, expended in any other manner.
This is more than can be said in favour of the greater part of the standing armies on the continent of Europe, whose numbers secure the despotism of the prince; whose maintenance is a most severe burden upon the countries which support them, and whose discipline, instead of exciting pleasing emotions, impresses the mind with horror.
But it will be said, they defend the nation from foreign enemies. Alas? could a foreign conqueror occasion more wretchedness, than such defenders? When he who calls himself my protector, has stripped me of my property, and deprived me of my freedom, I cannot return him very cordial thanks, when he tells me, that he will defend me from any other robber.
The most solid security which this little republic has for its independence, is founded on the mutual jealousy of its neighbours. There is no danger of its meeting with the misfortune which befel Poland, Geneva being such an atom of a state, as not to be divisible. It seems, however, as a kind of barrier or alarm-post to the Swiss cantons, particularly that of Berne, which certainly would not like to see it in the hands, either of the king of France, or of Sardinia. The acquisition is not worth the attention of the first; and it is better for the second, that the republic should remain in its present free and independent situation, than that it should revert to his possession, and be subjected to the same government with his other dominions. For no sooner would Geneva be in the possession of Sardinia, than the wealthiest of the citizens would abandon it, and carry their families and riches to Switzerland, Holland, or England. Trade and manufactures would dwindle with the spirit and independence of the inhabitants; and the flourishing, enlightened, happy city of Geneva, like other towns of Piedmont and Savoy, would become the residence of oppression, superstition, and poverty. In this situation, it could add but little to the king's revenue; while, at present, the peasants of his dominions resort every market-day in great numbers to Geneva, where they find a ready sale for all the productions of their farms. The land is on this account more valuable, and the peasants are more at their ease, though the rents are very high, more so, than in any other part of Savoy. The republic, therefore, in its present independent state, is of more use to the king of Sardinia, than if it were his property.
From this it may be perceived, that the stability of this little fabric of freedom, does not depend on the justice and moderation of the neighbouring powers, or on any equivocal support, but is founded on the solid, lasting pillars of their mutual interest.
CHAP. XVI.
Commerce.
TRADE at Geneva, instead of waiting at home for customers, travels in search of them, and where it can be promoted, the Genevese always resort. Its principal branches are clocks, watches, articles of jewellery, muslins, and the finer sort of linens.
Great part of the clock and watch pieces are made in the mountains of Switzerland; this being the occupation of the inhabitants, during the snowy season. Most of them work for watch-makers in Geneva, who purchase these pieces of them, half wrought, and work them up into watches, which, with incredible industry, they vend all over France, Spain, and Germany. They also export great quantities to the commercial houses, which several of these Geneva traders have in Paris, or to watch-makers of that city, who get their name inscribed on them, and sell them for their own work.
London was formerly a great customer to them in the article of watches, but we having increased this manufacture among ourselves, furnish a sufficient quantity for our own consumption, without the assistance of the Genevese; or if we take any of their goods, it must be at our own price. This proceeding has so far cooled the great fondness, which the Genevese pretended formerly to have for us, that they now openly declare us to be a pack of jews, who would have others take every thing from them, without their taking any thing from others. From England, however, it is, that they still import the greater part of their cloth, both for home consumption, and for sending into Italy, and likewise that which they smuggle into France, owning at the same time, that French cloths, at least the finer sort, are preserable to the English.
The two last wars in France, having been very detrimental to their jewellery trade, had driven a great number of workmen and dealers, to emigrate from Paris. The Genevese received them kindly, and set them to work; so that the jewellery trade at present, fully repairs the loss which the industry of the English had occasioned them to sustain, in that of their watches: they seem even in a fair way, to supplant France, in this considerable branch of commerce. The standard of the gold and silver, which they work up, is left to themselves; but the standard is what a fine lady or fopling, who must have a snuff-box or a tweezer, never trouble themselves about: besides, here is no duty to be paid; and as to the duties of import into France and Spain, their manner of eluding them, is thus: The Genevese merchant and his servant, set out from Geneva, well mounted, with two portmanteaus filled with watches and trinkets; the master is in a Swiss, half uniform, and, at every pass and gate of a town, claps on a cockade; to every
Qui va la?
his answer is,
Officier Swiss,
and he goes on without further ceremony.
The Geneva trade, consists chiefly in muslins, callicoes, lawns, and flowered linens. The greater part of the muslins worn in France, come from hence, and Geneva has them from Switzerland. In the last war in France, Geneva even supplied the sale at Port L'Orient with these goods, which otherwise must have failed by the delay of the India company's return. As to these matters, all Switzerland may be looked on as one vast manufacture, in which every advantage concentrates, entire freedom, exemption from all duties, plenty of raw materials, cheapness of labour, and the incessant industry of a very laborious people. It must have been by means more efficacious than schemes, memoirs, and dissertations, that Geneva and Basle have contrived to put off from time to time, the prohibition of printed cottons in France. A pretty nice conjecture of the advantages of such a prohibition to that kingdom, might have been formed only from the bustle and consternation of these two cities.
The result of this account, shews that the ballance of a very considerable trade between France, Switzerland, and the Genevese, is entirely in favour of the latter, who take nothing from France but corn, making but a very slender deduction from the sums which the payment of the Swiss troops draws from France; and this trade is always carried on to their advantage, whether part of the corn be remitted into Germany, or as is sometimes done, reimported into France, which is attended with considerable profit.
CHAP. XVII.
Mount Blanc and Glaciers.
VARIOUS attempts having been made to reach the summit of Mount Blanc, situated near Geneva, on the borders of Switzerland, which is not only the highest mountain in the whole world, but one of the most remarkable objects in it; a chronological account of the principal expeditions, which at length terminated successfully, will not perhaps be uninteresting.
The first enterprise was formed in 1776, by
M. Couterau,
and three guides of Chamouny. These adventurers set out from thence, on the 13th of July, about eleven o'clock in the evening, and after having employed about 14 hours in mounting rugged and dangerous ascents, in crossing several vallies of ice, and large plains of snow, they found themselves on the top, next to Mount Blanc. At first sight, it appeared scarcely a league distance; but they soon discovered that the clearness of the air, the whiteness of the snow, and its great height, made it seem nearer than it was in reality: and they perceived with regret, that it would require four hours more to reach the summit, even supposing it practicable. The day being far spent, and the vapours having begun to collect into clouds on the summit of the mountain, they were obliged to desist from their enterprize. As they were returning in great haste, one of the party slipped, in attempting to leap over a chasm of ice. He held in his hand a long pole, spiked with iron, which he struck into the ice, and upon this, he hung dreadfully suspended for a few minutes, until he was released by his companions. Many of these chasms, are several hundred fathoms in depth, and from one, to five or six feet in breadth. The danger this man had just escaped, made such an impression upon him, that he fainted away, and continued for some time in that situation: he was at length brought to himself, and though considerably bruised, sufficiently recovered, to be able to continue his journey. They arrived at Chamauny that evening, after having employed 22 hours in this expedition: as some sort of recompence, they enjoyed the satisfaction, at least, of having approached nearer to Mount Blanc, than any former adventurers.
The failure of this expedition, seemed for some time to repress all future attempts to attain the top of Mount Blanc, until the indefatigable Mr.
Bourrit,
infused a new spirit into the inhabitants of Chamouny. After reiterated, though unsuccessful attempts; on the 11th of September, 1784, Mr.
Bourrit,
accompanied by six guides, attempted to scale, as he expresses himself, the rampart of Mount Blanc, when he suddenly found himself so extremely affected by the intense cold, as to be unable to proceed.
On the 7th of August, 1786, Dr.
Paccard,
a physician of Chamouny, accompanied by
James Balma,
a guide, sallied from thence on this memorable expedition, and reached before dark, the mountain of La Cote, which overhangs the upper part of the glacier of Bosson. Here they passed the night; and at three in the morning, pursued their route over the ice, ascended the Dome of Gouté, passed under the Middle Dome, and at the last pyramid of rock, turned to the east, and continued along the ridge, which is seen from Geneva, and lies on the left of the summit. Here they first began to feel such intense cold, and such extreme fatigue, that the Dr. was almost induced to relinquish the enterprize: being, however, encouraged by the guide, more accustomed to such fatiguing and dangerous expeditions, he followed his companion. The wind was so violent, that in order to avoid its blowing in their faces, they were obliged to walk sideways for a considerable time. About six in the afternoon, they at length attained the summit of Mount Blanc, and stood triumphantly on a spot of ground, which no one had reached before; and at the elevation of 15,662 feet above the sea, which is three times higher than Snowdon, and undoubtedly the highest point in the ancient globe. They remained on the summit no more than half an hour, the cold being so intense, that the provision was frozen in their pockets, and the ink congealed in their inkhorns.
They had employed 15 hours in ascending; and though they again reached the mountain of La Cote in five hours, yet they found great difficulty in descending, their sight being debilitated by the reflection of the snow. They arrived at Ea Cote about midnight, after 20 hours unremitting fatigue. Having reposed themselves two hours, they again sallied forth, and returned to Chamouny, at eight in the morning. Their faces were excoriated, and their lips exceedingly swelled; Dr.
Pacard
was almost blind, and his eyes continued to be affected for a considerable time.
We cannot expect any accurate experiments from these two persons, to whom the glory of having first ascended the summit of Mount Blanc, is undoubtedly due. But they prepared the way for the observations and discoveries of future naturalists, and particularly of
M. de Saussure,
whose indefatigable zeal, did not permit him to rest, until he had reached the top of Mount Blanc, and made those experiments, which cannot fail greatly to elucidate the theory of the atmosphere.
That able naturalist sat out on this successful expedition, from the valley of Chamouny; on the 13th of August, 1787. He was accompanied by 18 guides, who carried a tent, matrasses, all necessary accommodations, and instruments of experimental philosophy. They passed the first night on the top of the mountain La Cote, in a hut, previously constructed for that purpose. At four o'clock in the following afternoon, they reached an elevation of nearly 13,000 feet above the level of the sea. Here they encamped and formed an excavation in the congealed snow, which they covered with a tent. In this icy habitation, instead of suffering from the cold,
M. de Saussure
felt such a suffocating heat from the closeness of the tent, and the number of persons crowded in so small a compass, that he was frequently obliged to go into the open air, in order to breathe.
The next morning, the whole company departed at seven; and found the ascent in some places so steep, that they who preceded, were obliged to hew out steps with a hatchet. At eleven, they reached the summit of Mount Blanc. Here they continued three hours and a half, during which time,
M. de Saussure
enjoyed with rapture and astonishment, a view the most extensive, as well as the most rugged and sublime in nature; and made those observations, which will render this expedition no longer a matter of mere curiosity.
He did not find the cold so extremely piercing, as was experienced by Dr.
Paccard
and
James Balma.
On estimating the height of Mount Blanc, from barometrical experiments, he found it almost exactly correspond with that given by Sir
George Shuckborough,
or 15,662 English feet above the level of the sea, and which reflects the highest honour on the accuracy of the English observer. By experiments with the hygrometer, the air on the top of Mount Blanc, contained six times less humidity than that of Geneva; and to this extreme dryness of the atmosphere, he imputes the burning thirst, which he and h
s companions experienced. It requires half an hour to boil water on the top of Mount Blanc; 15 or 16 minutes are sufficient at Geneva, and 14 or 15 by the sea-side. By experiments on the electrometer, the balls diverged only three lines; the electricity was positive. On the summit, he noticed two butterflies on the wing, and observed at the elevation of 11,000 feet above the sea, the moss-campion in flower.
He adds, that the summits of Mount Blanc, and the adjacent mountains, were composed of granite: and that after Mount Blanc, the Sereckhorn, and Mount Rosa in Piedmont, appeared the most elevated points.
M. de Saussure,
as well as many of his party, found themselves extremely affected by the rarefaction of the air; and at two, began returning. They defended a little lower than the place in which they passed the preceding night, and arrived the next morning at the valley of Chamouny, without the least accident; and as they had taken the precaution to cover their faces with crape, their skins were not excoriated, nor their sight debilitated.
On the eighth of August, a few days after
M. de Saussure's
expedition, Mr.
Beaufoy,
an English gentleman, succeeded in a similar attempt, though it was attended with greater difficulty, arising from the enlargement of the chasms in the ice.
No subject is more curious in natural history, than the origin of these glaciers, extending into fields of corn and pasture, and lying, without being melted, in a situation where the sun is sufficient to bring the earth to maturity: for it is almost literally true, that with one hand a person may touch ice, and with the other, ripe corn.
If a person could be conveyed to such an elevation, as to embrace at one view, the Alps of Switzerland, Savoy, and Dauphine, he would behold a vast chain of mountains, interscepted by numerous vallies, and composed of many parallel chains, the highest occupying the center, and the others gradually diminishing in proportion to their distance from that center. The most elevated, or central chain, would appear bristled with pointed rocks; and covered even in summer, with ice and snow, in all parts not absolutely perpendicular. On each side of this chain, he would discover deep vallies clothed with verdure, peopled with numerous villages, and watered by many rivers. In considering these objects with greater attention, he would remark, that the central chain is composed of elevated peaks, whose summits are overspread with snow; that the declivities, excepting those parts extremely steep, are covered with snow and ice; and the intermediate depths and spaces, are filled with immense fields of ice, terminating in those cultivated vallies, which border the great chain. The branches most contiguous to the central chain, would present the same phenomena, only in a lesser degree. At greater distances, no ice would be observed, and scarcely any snow, but upon some of the most elevated summits; and the mountains diminishing in height, and ruggedness, would appear covered with herbage, and gradually sink into hills and plains.
In this general survey, the glaciers may be divided into two sorts; the first occupying the deep vallies, situated in the bosom of the Alps, distinguished by the name of Lower Glaciers; the second, which clothe the summits and sides of the mountains, called Upper Glaciers. The Lower Glaciers, are by far the most considerable in extent and depth. Some stretch several leagues in length; one in particular, is more than 15 miles long, and above three in its greatest breadth. The thickness of the ice varies in different parts,
M. de Saussure
found its general depth from 80 to 100 feet; but questions not the information of those who assert, that in some places its thickness exceeds even 600 feet.
These immense fields of ice, usually rest on an inclined plain: being pushed forwards by the pressure of their own weight, and but weakly supported by the rugged rocks beneath, are intersected by large transverse crevices; and present the appearance of walls, pyramids, and other fantastic shapes, observed at all heights and in all situations, wherever the declivity is beyond 30 or 40 degrees. Where the plain on which they rest, is horizontal, or only gently inclined, the surface of the ice is nearly uniform, and the traveller crosses them without much difficulty. The ice is not so slippery, as that of frozen ponds and rivers: it is rough and granulated, and is only dangerous to the passenger, where there is a steep descent. It is not transparent, but extremely porous and full of small bubbles, which seldom exceed the size of a pea; and consequently is not so compact as common ice. Its perfect resemblance to the congelation of snow, impregnated with water, led
M. de Saussure
to conceive the following simple and natural theory, on the formation of the glaciers.
An immense quantity of snow is continually accumulating in the elevated vallies, which are enclosed within the Alps, as well from that which falls from the clouds, during nine months in the year, as from the masses which are incessantly rolling from the steep sides of the circumjacent mountains. Part of this snow, which is not dissolved during summer, being impregnated with rain and snow-water, is frozen during winter, and forms that opaque and porous ice, of which the Lower Glaciers are composed.
The Upper Glaciers may be subdivided into those which cover the summits, and those which extend along the sides of the Alps. Those which cover the summits of the Alps, owe their origin to the snow that falls at all seasons of the year, and which remains nearly in its original state, being congealed into a hard substance, and not converted into ice. The substance which clothes the sides of the Alps, is neither pure snow like that of the summits, nor ice which forms the lower glaciers, but is an assemblage of both.
The ascent of Mount Blanc, being a work of so much danger and difficulty, ordinary travellers content themselves in their tour through Switzerland, with going to take a view of the glaciers, and of Mount Blanc, from some of the mountains adjacent, to the vale of Chamouny. There are five or six of these, which all terminate upon one side of the valley of Chamouny.
The Glacier Des Bois, is not only the most accessible, but one of the most curious. It is not the widest, but it descends without interruption, from Mount Blanc itself, and affords all the variety of objects we meet with in the glacier; the lofty walls and towers, the waving seas, and the tremendous fissures.
One of the most interesting objects here, is the magnificent vault of ice at the foot of the glacier, from whence the river Arveron takes its source. The access to it, seems blocked up by hugh masses of rock, wildly thrown about. Within, immense blocks of transparent ice are scattered about the floor, warning the traveller to trust himself with caution, to the brittle arch over his head. From the further part of the cavern, boils forth melted ice, forming rivulets, that meander all about it. In different years, it puts on very different appearances. It exposes itself to view only a short time; for till the end of July, or the beginning of August, nothing appears, but a rude mass of ice, walling up the cavern: at length this falls, and all at once opens to view, this beautiful vault, which has not been unaptly termed, the Temple of the God of Frost.
What renders the passage over the glaciers so difficult and dangerous is, the rents in the ice, which are to be met with in every direction. These rents, says
Moore,
are from two to 600 feet wide, and of an amazing depth; reaching from the surface of the valley, thro' a body of ice, many hundred fathoms thick. On throwing down a stone, or any other solid substance, we could hear the hollow murmur of its descent, for a very long time, sounding like far distant waves, breaking upon rocks.
CHAP. XVIII.
Neuchatel.
THE principality of Neuchatel and Vallengin stretches from the lake to the limits of Franche Comtè, containing in length from north to south, about 12 leagues, and about six in its greatest breadth. The principality of Neuchatel, occupies all the plain together, with the lower parts of the mountains: while Vallengin is totally enclosed within the Jura. Parallel chains of the Jura, run from east to west, and form in the most elevated part, several vallies. The lower grounds are laid out in arable lands and vineyards; the higher consists of a large tract of forest, intermixed with fields of barley and oats. But what particularly deserves the attention of every curious traveller, is, the singular genius and industry of the very populous inhabitants of these vallies, of which after having spoken of Neuchatel, we shall treat more fully.
Neuchatel and Vallengin once formed two distinct principalities; each having a separate and independent government: but for some time past, they have been united into one. By the death of the Duchess of
Nemours,
in 1707, the sovereignty of these two countries became vacant; to which, as heir to the Prince of
Orange, Frederic
the First, King of Prussia, amongst many others, put in his claim; and his right was acknowledged by the states of the country. After his death, it descended to his son
Frederic William,
who transmitted it with his other dominions to the late King of Prussia, and is now possessed by the present monarch.
The whole principality contains near 40,000 inhabitants, of which there are 3,000 in the capital; it is there the governor resides, and the general administration of public affairs is carried on.
The town of Neuchatel is small. It lies partly upon the little plain, between the lake of Neuchatel and Mount Jura, and partly upon the declivity of that mountain: in consequence of which situation, some of its streets are rather steep. At the commencement of the present century, commerce was almost wholly a stranger here; as the ridiculous pride of its being deemed degrading, generally prevailed among them. This senseless prejudice, however, is now nearly worn out; and a considerable trade is carried on. The chief article of their exportation is wine, produced from the neighbouring vineyards, and much esteemed. Several manufactures also of cotton and muslin have been established with success; and within these few years, the merchants of this town have raised large fortunes.
The mildness of the government, and the general well-being of the inhabitants, are visibly demonstrated from the increase of population among the natives, and the prodigious influx of settlers. The facility of acquiring the burghership of Neuchatel, has also prevented any decrease of the inhabitants.
Several public buildings have been lately erected at Neuchatel, at an expence far exceeding the revenues, or even wants of this little state. Amongst others are a superb causeway leading toward the valley of S. Imici, and a town-house built of such solid materials, as if it was intended to survive to the most distant posterity, and to rival the duration of the much famed Roman capital.
The person to whom the burghers of Neuchatel principally owe the embellishment of their town is M.
David Perry,
late banker of the court at Lisbon. He was a citizen of Neuchatel, and was born in 1709. He died on the 31st of May 1785, and the fortune he bequeathed to his country amounts to 160,000
l.
which with the contributions in his life time renders his benefactions equal to almost 200,000
l.
His grateful country obtained from the King of Prussia the title of Baron, in his favour; a title, which through his singular modesty, he neither bore nor used in the signature of his letters. The citizens of Neuchatel have also placed the portrait of this generous benefactor in one of the apartments in which government assembles.
The town consists of four large streets and an old castle, in which the governor resides, with two churches and a gymnasium. Around the town on all sides are vineyards, gardens, and pleasant seats.
Its regency consists of the lesser and greater council; the former of which is composed of twenty-four members, and the latter of forty. These attend to the police and other public concerns.
In the district of Vallengin among the valleys of Mount Jura, are the two celebrated villages of La Chaux de Fond and Locle, the inhabitants of which are so remarkably distinguished for their genius, industry, and skill in the mechanical arts, and which flourish here in their greatest perfection. The inhabitants who are computed to be about 6,000, carry on an extensive commerce in lace, stockings, cutlery, and other different kinds of merchandise of their own manufactures; but watches and every branch of clock making, are the articles in which they particularly and eminently excel. They not only make every utensil employed in those arts, but have invented several: and all sorts of workmen necessary for the completion of that branch of business, such as painters, enamellers, engravers, gilders, &c. are found in their villages; where it is supposed, that upon an average about forty thousand watches are annually made. The genius and industry observable upon these mountains, exhibit a scene uncommonly pleasing; and no where perhaps, except in Geneva, are there such a number apparently so much at their ease. Accordingly as every individual is sure not only of obtaining a comfortable maintenance for himself, but of soon placing his children also in a way of getting their livelihood; they all marry very early; for women and children are employed in some of the branches of watch-making; and a child of but ten years old may earn ten pence a day, by giving the last polish to steel instruments with the hand. And as to the men, there are few who do not get half a crown a day; and some, nine shillings.
Not many years ago, the greatest part of these valleys was almost one continued forest; but the wonder-working powers of industry have happily changed the scene into flourishing villages and fertile pastures. Population has encreased of course; and the following fact will give some idea how much it has encreased. Formerly the produce of the country was more than sufficient for the consumption of its inhabitants; at present, although it is considerably more cultivated, they draw seven-eighths of their provision from Franche Comté. And no wonder; for, besides the natural effect of their frequent and early marriages, every stranger, who brings a certificate of his good behaviour, is at liberty to settle here, and to carry on any trade he thinks proper, without the least restriction. Here, no apprenticeship is necessary; nothing is contraband; and industry exerts herself untaxed.
Besides those particular arts already mentioned, some of the inhabitants are well skilled in other branches of mechanical science; and have invented several useful mathematical and agronomical instruments. Among those who have eminently distinguished themselves in this way is the famous
Jaquet Dro
,
whose son exhibited in England several automatical figures of a very singular and surprizing construction: one of these plays upon the harpsichord; another draws landscapes; and what is still more extraordinary, a third copies any word presented to it, or writes down whatever the company shall please to dictate.
The origin of watch-making in this part of Switzerland is extremely curious. In 1769 one of the inhabitants brought with him a watch from England, the first that had been seen in those parts; which, happening to be out of order, he ventured to trust it in the hands of one
Daniel John Richard
of La Sagne.
Richard,
after examining the mechanism with great attention, conceived himself capable, and was determined to attempt to make a watch from the model before him, but to this end he was destitute of every other assistance than the powers of his own native genius. Accordingly he employed a whole year in inventing and finishing the several instruments previously necessary for executing his purpose; and in six months from that period, by the sole force of his own penetrating and persevering talents, he produced a complete watch. But his ambition and industry did not stop here: besides applying himself successfully to the invention of several new instruments useful for the perfection of his work, he took a journey to Geneva, where he gained considerable information in the art. He continued for some time the only man in those parts who could make a watch, but business encreasing, he took in, and instructed several associates; by whose assistance, he was enabled to supply from his single shop all the demands of the neighbouring country. Toward the beginning of the present century he removed to Locle, where he died in 1741, leaving five sons, who all followed their father's occupation. From these the knowledge and practice of the art gradually spread itself, till it at length became almost the universal business of the inhabitants, and the principal cause of the populousness of these mountains.
But it is not merely in these articles, that the genius of the mechanical people is observable; it discovers itself on all occasions, when it can be applied to the purposes of their convenience and accommodation. To give an instance, the rocks in most parts of the Alps being exceedingly hard and solid; the water can only make its way along their sides, and rush down in perpetual torrents; but the strata, which compose the Jura, being less firm and compact; the rains and melted snow penetrate with impetuosity into the crevices, and only discover themselves by breaking out into rivulets at the bottom of the mountains.
Now the peasants in order to avail themselves of this peculiarity, have erected mills at a great expence, and with incredible labour some yards under the rocks, which are turned by those internal torrents of water, that force their way through the crevices above-mentioned. For this purpose the builders have constructed wheels where it seemed scarcely practicable, and have invented new modes of scaffolding, and a great variety of other ingenious contrivances, in order to facilitate their work.
The inhabitants of these several districts are exceedingly courteous, and ready to give every assistance in their power to strangers who visit their country. They are in general very well informed in several branches of knowledge; and as they usually employ their leisure hours in reading, there are circulating libraries to be found in many of the villages.
Their houses are in general small, but handsome and well built: many of them are furnished with a degree of neatness and even elegance, peculiarly striking. Indeed luxury, or what according to the simplicity of manners is here so called, has made no inconsiderable progress in these mountains; of this one of the inhabitants of Locle gave a curious proof, who seriously complained that it was now no unusual circumstance for the master of a family to carry his wife to Besançon to see a play; and that there were now at least ten hair-dressers settled at Locle; whereas, some few years ago there was but one to be found in the town and its whole district.
The constitution of Neuchatel is a limited monarchy. The machine of this government is indeed actuated by such nice springs, that it is very difficult for a stranger to distinguish, with any degree of accuracy, the prerogative of the sovereign, and the franchises of the people: particularly as some even of their most important privileges, depend upon mutual acquiescence and immemorial custom, and not upon written laws. Upon the accession of
Frederic
the First, certain general articles, which in a great measure established the prerogatives of the Prince and the liberties of the subject, were signed and ratified by the King.
The Prince confers nobility, nominates to the principal offices of state, both civil and military, and appoints the chatelains and mayors who precide in the court of justice. His revenues which are very moderate, and scarcely amount to 5000
l.
a year, arises from certain demesnes; from a small land tax; from the tythes of wine and corn; and from the tenth of the value on the sale of immoveables. With regard to commerce, no subjects pays any duties either on importation or exportation, except for foreign wines imported into the town of Neuchatel.
During the absence of the Prince, he is represented by a governor of his own appointing; who enjoys considerable honours, but is extremely limited in his authority. He convokes the three estate; precedes in that assembly; and has the casting vote, if the suffrages happen to be equal. He enjoys the power also, in criminal cases, of pardoning or of mitigating the sentence. In the governor's absence his place is supplied by the senior counsellor of state.
The people of Vallengin assemble every three years in an open plain, in order to elect their three
master-burghers.
Their function is to watch over the general interest of the people: they are also in some cases deputed to Neuchatel by the people, whenever they are summoned by the governor and council of state, in relation to any affair which particularly concerns their county.
Such are the general outlines of this remarkable constitution, by which the liberties of the people are as well, and perhaps better secured, than even in the democratic cantons; for, although the most despotic prince in Germany is their sovereign, his power is exceedingly limited. Among the striking circumstances which characterise this government, must be mentioned the very liberal encouragement given to strangers who settle in this country. They enjoy every possible privilege of trade and commerce; and in no state are fewer essential distinctions made between them and the nations. The good effects of this enlarged policy has already been shewn in the increased population of Neuchatel and Vallengin; whereas a narrower and more contracted principle in some of the adjoining cantons has occasioned and continues to occasion, a very manifest decrease of inhabitants.
CHAP. XIX.
Review of Switzerland.
HAVING now laid before our readers a pretty full and comprehensive account of the laws, government, state of literature, and a situation of the principal towns and cantons of Switzerland separately, we shall conclude with some further remarks in relation to the customs and manners, and political aspect of that country in general.
What is very singular in the first place, no part of Europe contains within the same compass so many independent commonwealths, and such a variety of different governments as are collected together in this remarkable and delightful country; and yet with such wisdom has the Helvetic union been composed, and so little have the Swiss, of late years been actuated by a spirit of conquest, that since the firm and complete establishment of their general confederacy, they have seldom found occasion to employ their army against a foreign enemy; nor have they been troubled with any civil commotions, that were not soon happily terminated. Perhaps there is not a similar instance in ancient or modern history, of a warlike people, divided into little independent republics, closely bordering upon each other, and occasionally interfering in their respective interests, having continued during so long a period, in an almost uninterrupted state of tranquillity. And thus, while the several neighbouring kingdoms suffer, by turns, all of horrors of war, this favoured nation enjoys the felicity of looking down with security upon the various tempests that shake the world around them.
The happiness of a long peace, however, has neither broken the spirit nor enervated the arm of the Swiss. The youths are diligently trained to martial exercises, such as running, wrestling, and shooting both with the cross-bow and musket, a considerable number of well-disciplined troops are always employed in foreign service; and the whole people are enrolled, and regularly exercised in their respective militias. By these means they are capable of collecting a very respectable body of forces, which would prove formidable to any enemy who should invade their country, or attack their liberties. Thus whilst most of the other states on the continent are tending towards a military government, Switzerland alone has no standing armies; and yet, from the nature of its situation, from its particular alliances, and from the policy of its internal government, is more secure from invasion than any other European power.
The felicity of Switzerland, however, does not consist merely in this peculiar exemption from the burdens and miseries of war; as there is no country in which happiness and content more universally prevail among the people. For whether the government is aristocratical, democratical, or mixed; a general spirit of liberty pervades and actuates the several constitutions: so that even the oligarchical states which are usually the most tyrannical, are here peculiarly mild; and the property of the subject is in general securely guarded against every kind of violation.
This, says
Addison,
must be chiefly ascribed to the nature of the people, and the constitution of their governments. Were the Swiss animated by zeal or ambition, some or other of their states would immediately break in upon the rest; or were the states so many principalities, they might often have an ambitious sovereign at the head of them, that would embroil his neighbours, and sacrifice the repose of his subjects to his own glory. But as the inhabitants of these countries are naturally of a heavy phlegmatic temper; if any of their leading members have more fire and spirit than comes to their share, it is quickly tempered by the coldness and moderation of the rest, who sit at the helm with them. To this we may add, that the Alps is the worst spot of ground in the world to make conquests, a great part of its governments being so naturally intrenched among woods and mountains. However, we find no such disorders among them, as we would expect in such a multitude of states; for as soon as any public rupture happens, it is immediately closed up by the moderation and good offices of the rest who interfere.
As all the considerable governments among the Alps are commonwealths, so indeed it is a constitution the most adapted of any other to the poverty and barrenness of these countries. We may see only in a neighbouring government the ill consequences of having a despotic prince, in a state that is most of it composed of rocks and mountains; for, notwithstanding there is a vast extent of lands, and many of them better than those of the Swiss and Grisons, the common people among the latter are much more at their ease, and in a greater affluence of all the conveniencies of life. A prince's court generally introduces a kind of luxury and magnificence, that sets every particular person upon making a higher figure in his station, than is generally consistent with his revenue.
It is the great endeavour of the several cantons of Switzerland, to banish from among them every thing that looks like pomp or superfluity. To this end the ministers are always preaching, and the governors putting out edicts against gaming, entertainments and fine cloaths. This is become more necessary in some of the governments, since there have been so many refugees settled among them; for though the protestants in France affect ordinarily a greater plainness and simplicity of manners, than those of the same quality who are of the Roman catholic communion, they have however too much of their country-gallantry for the genius and constitution of Switzerland. Should dressing, feasting, and balls once get among the cantons, their military roughness would be quickly lost, their tempers would grow too soft for their climate, and their expences outrun their income besides, the materials for their luxury must be brought from other nations, which would immediately ruin a country that has few commodities of its own to export, and is not overstocked with money. Luxury indeed wounds a republic in its very vitals, as its natural consequences are rapine, avarice, and injustice; for the more money a man spends, the more must he endeavour to augment his stock; which at last sets the liberty and votes of a commonwealth to sale, if they find any foreign power that is able to pay the price of them. We see no where the pernicious effects of luxury on a republic, more than in that of the ancient Romans, who immediately found itself poor, as soon as this vice got footing among them, though they were possessed of all the riches in the world. We find in the beginnings and increases of their commonwealth▪ strange instances of the contempt of money, because indeed they were utter strangers to the pleasures that might be procured by it; or, in other words, because they were wholly ignorant of the acts of luxury. But as soon as they once entered into a taste for pleasure, politeness, and magnificence, they fell into a thousand violencies, conspiracies, and divisions, that threw them into all the disorders imaginable, and terminated in the utter subversion of the commonwealth. It is no wonder, therefore, the poor commonwealths of Switzerland are ever labouring at the suppression and prohibition of every thing that may introduce variety and luxury. Besides the several fines that are set upon plays, games, balls, and feastings, they have many customs among them which very much contribute to the keeping up of their ancient simplicity. The bourgeois who are at the head of the governments, are obliged to appear at all their public assemblies in a black cloak and a band. The women's dress is very plain, those of the best quality wearing nothing on their heads generally but furs, which are to be met with in their own country. The persons of different qualities in both sexes, are indeed allowed their different ornaments, but these are generally such as are by no means costly, being rather designed as marks of distinction, than to make a figure. The chief officers of Berne, for example, are known by the crown of their hats, which are much deeper than those of an inferior character. The peasants are generally cloathed in a coarse kind of canvas, the manufacture of their own country. Their holy-day cloaths go from father to son, and are seldom worn out, till the second or third generation: so that it is common enough to see a countryman in the doublet and breeches of his great grandfather.
Geneva is much politer than Switzerland, or any of its allies, and is therefore looked upon as the court of the Alps, whither the protestant cantons often send their children to improve themselves in language and education. The Genevois have been very much refined; or, as others will have it, very much corrupted by the conversation of the French protestants, who make up almost a third of their people. It is certain they have very much forgotten the advice that
Calvin
formerly gave them in a great council a little before his death, when he recommended to them above all things an exemplary modesty and humility, and as great a simplicity in their manners as in their religion.
In the times even of
Cato
the censor, the Appian law was not better observed at Rome, than the sumptuary laws are at present in Switzerland. One is astonished, says de
Langle,
how sumptuary laws can be established without driving the fairest part of the human race into rebellion against tyranny! It is difficult to conceive how it has happened, that the ladies have submitted to those cruel and childish prohibitions; and by what means it came about, that in Switzerland, as elsewhere, the fair sex do not make the lash?
Feathers and artificial flowers are strictly forbidden. It is in vain that the women complain, murmur, and make a horrible noise; there is no gallant senator, who will ever elevate his voice in their favour; and imitating the example of the Tribune
Valerius,
plead as proxy for the ladies, in behalf of trinkets, feathers, and new fashions.
Were it not for those cruel prohibitions, French baubles would find a ready market in Switzerland. The young women seem to devour them with their eyes, and speak with raptures of France, and more particularly of Paris; for Paris is the capital of women; it is there that the female Swedes, Spaniards, and Italian run, to learn how to govern men with ribbands and laces; it is there that the female parisians reign, in the midst of foolish fashions, by means of charms ever varying, ever new—and it is there that the English kneel, and throw away their money and their melancholy.
To those who have resided for any considerable time in Switzerland, it is quickly perceptible, adds de
Langle,
how much the republican spirit of its inhabitants has universally degenerated. The Athenians, the Romans, the Spartans, spent their time in public places—they listened to the orators of their country—they attended the senate, they frequented the
Campus Martius,
the place where the youths performed their military exercises,—or served with the armies and fleets by sea or land; —but the Republicans of the cantons of Switzerland who prefer tobacco to politics, nine-pins to orations, and the bottle to news, spend their lives in an alehouse, where they smoke, drink, play, and gaze at the passengers who are going by. The women are entirely banished from their clubs, or assemblies. A society without women!—There is nothing there but wine, brandy and other spirituous liquors, calculated to chase away care; but the remedy is worse than the disease!
It is especially in the little cantons, that this custom is the most observable. The two sexes have there almost become utter strangers, and entirely unacquainted with each other. If the husband speaks to his wife five or six times in the course of the year, it is the most that is expected. The women there live like so many queen bees— they vegetate among themselves, and have not yet contrived how to sign and write a
billet doux.
The luxury of Switzerland consists in the pleasures of the table; the people look upon good cheer as the greatest of all blessings:—the reports, indeed, do not resemble those of
Lafare
and
Chaulieu;
the guests, however, neither eat nor drink, less than they did.
Sylvius,
the celebrated physician of Paris, who recommended to his patients to get drunk four times a week, would have made his fortune in this part of the world. Next to Germany, Switzerland is the country where they drink most; the character of a
hard-drinker
is actually a recommendation there. In a great number of the cantons, they still repeat with admiration, the story of an ambassador from France; who, on returning home to his own court, prepared to take leave of the deputies:— "Your Excellency," said their magistrate, "must not depart without drinking some of the wine of Etrier." "The wine of Etrier," replies the ambassador, "ought to be drunk out of a boot;" and immediately pulling off one of his own, he fills and empties it in an instant, springs into his saddle, and rides away with the swiftness of an arrow.
We perhaps condemn, without sufficient reflection, the too liberal use of wine among the Swiss. It may be to the juice of the grape, that they are indebted for many of their best qualities. It is commonly remarked, that drunkards are very good sort of people;—that they are incapable of hatred; —that their hearts are very seldom corrupt or vicious;—that they are open and candid, and consequently very easy to be known.
In the juice of this berry from which coffee is made, says
De Langle,
consists the luxury of the people of Switzerland. On the top of their mountains—on the sides of their steep rocks—where the most common refinement has not yet penetrated, and where the inhabitants have still preserved the simplicity of their ancient manners, the custom of drinking coffee is carried to excess; and it is not uncommon to see maid-servants, and female peasants, pawning their petticoats and their stays, to purchase sugar to render it palatable. If the rage for this beverage is attended with some inconveniences, it cannot on the other hand be doubted, but that the people are become much more sober by its use; that drunkenness has become infinitely more uncommon since its introduction, and that it has effected what neither the fine harangues of
Socrates,
the epigrams of
Martial,
the discourses of
Seneca,
in former times; or the best moral treatises, and the finest declamations on temperance in our own days have been able to accomplish. Although coffee is familiar to most of the inhabitants of the globe, and its use almost universal, were it still more common, the taverns would have less company, and the artizans and labourers in great cities might by little and little leave off the custom of spending, in two or three hours, the price of fifteen or twenty pounds of breads, which would maintain a whole family for a week.
A friend of
Socrates
complained, that provisions were exceedingly dear at Athens. The wine of Chio was fifty livres a bottle, honey in proportion, a fish twenty deniers; and as to cinnamon, it was sold at a most extravagant price.
Socrates
on this, conducted his friend to the place where hydromel and cummin were sold; these might be procured for a trifle. It is just the same in Switzerland; the necessaries of life may be had cheap; luxuries alone are expensive: one may live there on a very small nnuity, and the man of forty crowns per annum, an imaginary character, drawn by the masterly pen of
Voltaire,
could very easily have enjoyed his four meals a day in that country.
A real misanthrope is a monster unknown to nature; for nature never made one. And yet notwithstanding this, the Swiss, with a few exceptions, are melancholy, taciturn, fond of sequestered and peaceable retreats, and seem not to indulge in the gay sallies of wit and enjoyment. It is undoubtedly the awful appearance of the mountains, the precipices, and the avalanches, that they have continually before their eyes, which intimidates and prevents them from laughing. Their women are more courageous; neither the glaciers, the rocks, nor the mountains make any impression on them. Almost all the women in Switzerland are lively, and are as playful as kittens; a little ball will amuse them; even a butterfly will divert and make them laugh. The men in Switzerland, in general, exhibit a certain degree of melancholy in all their motions, even in their dancing; they are leaden heeled and have no ear.
The women, on the contrary, dance with great vivacity, are quick in all their motions, light, lively, and always in the air; it seems as if the earth burnt their feet. It is improper, however, remarks
de Langle,
that they should dance with downcast eyes, without ever looking at their partners.
This modesty and reserve, so commendable at church, at table, or in any other assembly, ought to be entirely banished from the ball-room. Amorous looks, friendly squeezes of the hand, even kisses themselves, animate a ball, render it more agreeable, and never give occasion for scandal:—the violin, the clarinet, the tamborine, and the flagelet, purify every thing.
Those who preside over this part of education, ought to command their pupils to smile at every step. There is nothing in the world more unnatural than to see an Englishman put on a serious and sulky appearance amidst the quick tunes of an allemande; black and white, night and day, form less outrageous contrasts!
The frivolity, however, which we have noticed among the Swiss ladies is only in appearance. Switzerland is the country of all others, where the women, in general, converse most naturally, most judiciously, and know, on proper occasions, how to give the best advice. They are well educated, and are endowed with uncommon accomplishments; poetry, history, philosophy, even politics are within the sphere of their knowledge; and indeed nothing appears difficult to their comprehension. They are also fond of the fine arts, and excel the acquirements adapted to the fair sex. Most of them play upon some instrument, dance, ride on horseback, and sing like so many larks.
The passions are very violent in Switzerland, but the ladies are so savagely virtuous, adds
de Langle,
that one may write on almost all their doors, what
Dante
says in his poem is inscribed over the entrance into the infernal regions:
"From this place is banished all hope."
The courtezans of Berne are the handsomest women in all Europe. I doubt if
Rhodope,
who, out of the profits of her profession, erected one of the Egyptian pyramids; or
Phryne,
who, by the same means rebuilt the walls of Thebes, were more beautiful or more seductive.
With respect to the men, it must be acknowledged that notwithstanding the sombre appearance of their aspect, it is easy to discern among the Swiss a degree of simplicity and integrity, that renders all intercourse with them safe. Estimable on account of a thousand good qualities, the people of Switzerland will be found to possess a more pure system of morals than any where else. Discretion is their favourite quality;—as much to be trusted as silence itself.
Though they have been calumniated by those, who, on account of a few uncommon instances of parsimony, have not been ashamed to accuse the whole nation of a sordid avarice; and of making use of unjustifiable means of procuring wealth. Yet no nation is in general more generous and more hospitable than they are. There are a great number of charitable asylums to be found in every part of Switzerland; a prodigious multitude of alms-houses for the maintenance of the aged; many foundations for the accommodation of the unfortunate, and more especially for the reception of pregnant women.
Among those charitable institutions, a more reputable one never existed in any part of the globe, since mankind, abjuring the state of nature, have united together, than that of the society of
emulation
and
compassion
at Basle. No where do they better observe, or exercise with more boundless charity, that delicate regard and tenderness, so necessary to be exerted towards those bashful poor, who are ashamed to declare their wants. All the members who compose this amiable confraternity, are citizens distinguished by their humanity, by the purity of their manners, and by never having incurred the censure of the public, genteel families, who have fallen into indigence:—young women whom misfortunes might have led to dishonour;—the shopkeeper—the mechanic, burthened with a numerous family of children;—widows—orphans; and more particularly the inhabitants of the adjoining country, are the objects of their paternal solicitude: It is from these circumstances that the appearance of misery never shocks the eye of a stranger in the cantons of Switzerland.
If the traveller does not, like the poets in their flowery descriptions, hear the pipe of the shepherd, the song of the labourer, and the laughter of the shepherdess; if he does not perceive Pan at a distance crowned with flowers, and his reed in his mouth; if he does not see fauns, Sylvans, groves, bowers, and rivulets; if he has not constantly before his eyes, landscapes animated by groves, by dances, and by songs; he does not, however, as in France, in Italy, and in Germany, see the most hideous rags, and the most disgusting nakedness; he is not pursued along the road by skeletons in want of food, and by a crowd of little unhappy wretches, who tell him of the number of their brothers and sisters exposed to famine, and of their sick mother, who is dying in bed!
The inhabitants of one half of Switzerland profess the protestant religion. It was
Zinglius, Bucer,
and
Brilinger,
who may be reckoned the authors of the reformation in Switzerland: it was they who first dared to deny the infallibility of the Pope, to brave his anathemas, his keys, and his triple crown! The desire of shaking off the yoke of the Roman pontiff inflamed every bosom. Berne, Zurie, and Basle, embraced the opinions of
Calvin,
concerning grace, free-will, and predestination; and, without respect for holy imposture, in a moment the altars were demolished, the crosses, the chalices, the images were trampled upon; the missals were torn in pieces, the plaster saints were reduced to powder, and the wooden ones given to the poor people to light their fires with.
It was about this period that the protestant canton, by an edict, prohibited every one from saying any thing of God, either good, bad, or indifferent; and it was in the midst of these troubles, occasioned by the reformation, that the inhabitants of Basle in their fury precipitated the legate of Pope XXII from the top of a terrace!
These times are no more! Europe has assumed a new appearance;—Fanaticism no longer occasions the death of any one!—Although the reformed is the national and prevailing religion in the protestant cantons, yet all sects are tolerated, all communions admitted, and all kinds of worship are allowed. At Berne, at Zuric, and at Neuchatel, there are a great number of Papists, of Anabaptists, and Moravians. The Pre-adamites also have made a great progress there, and have already acquired a number of proselytes. They boldly affirm, that the world has existed from all eternity; that warmth, cold, dry, and wit, have never been confounded; and yet the words chaos, matter, &c. are only poetical terms for night and day.
Though the government of Switzerland allows to all sects the liberty of thinking, of praying, and of worshipping God, after their own particular fancy, yet the Catholics have not any churches in the protestant cantons. Besides, the enigmatical and mysterious foundation of the Roman faith has always appeared to them to be whimsical, and beyond the reach of human belief. The priests and monks have been the cause of most of the insurrections in Switzerland; the remembrance of their rapacity, of their lust, and their depraved manners, is still so fresh, and, as it were, yet bleeding in their memory; in fine, crimes of every species have so often profaned the sanctuary, and sullied the priesthood in this country, that the reformed still continue to regard the Roman faith as a rotten branch of christianity!
The churches of the reformed religion are entirely destitute of ornament; as to the cathedrals, they are models of Gothic architecture. The buildings in no country better demonstrate how much the artists of the 11th, the 12th, and the 13th centuries excelled in carving, in design in general, and in majesty and grandeur in particular. Within the protestant church all is simplicity: one neither sees gold nor rubies; there are only a few benches and chairs, and a pulpit and communion table.
This kind of worship is too naked; Religion stands in need of drapery and machinery;—the reformed should admit ornaments and pictures into their temples; and, above all, music, to inflame the imagination, and raise the soul to the Divinity. The people ought to be soothed with the majesty of ceremonies, the vapour of incense, and the melody of instruments, and of the human voice. Sumptuous as was the temple of Solomon, it might perhaps have remained empty, had it not re-echoed night and day with the songs and instruments of the daughter of Sion!
While speaking of the holy place—while speaking of the sacred ceremonies;—in the midst of the cares that surrounded his throne—in the midst even of his most brilliant victories,
David
always thinks on concerts of harmony, and of music, and demands continually, that his songs may be accompanied by the harp, the cymbal, the organ, and the trumpet!
Montagne,
whom we may look upon as the author who has spoken most merrily of death, and who repeatedly says with his usual gaity and frankness, "that he would rather meet death on horseback than in his bed, to avoid the blubbering retinue that surrounds the dying, ought to have inhabited and dwelt in Switzerland. There, they have no clergymen who menace the expiring patient with
bell-flames;
no monks, who make death a hideous affair, and paint the avenging angel in black and hideous colours! The Protestants sustained by their considence in a God full of bounties, die conversing and smiling with their family. No where are those languishing on a sick bed so composed and so serene. One may almost exclaim,
"Vive la mort!"
in these protestant countries.
It is the strong belief of a resurrection—it is the certainty of being more happy—it is the solacing idea that their friends and relations are still in existence, and that they shall enjoy hereafter the pleasure of their intercourse and society, that softens the horrors of death among these people—that enables them to look it in the face without trembling, and without growing pale, and makes them play, as it were, with it, in the same manner as the peasants of Bohemia and the Tyrol do with serpents, notwithstanding their enormous thickness, their frightful hisses, and their flame-coloured eyes.
Nothing can be more simple than the funerals in this country are. The Swiss, more reasonable than any other nation, think it is ridiculous to escort with pomp, and to inter, with idle and useless ceremony, a mass of flesh without life, stranger to all that passes concerning it, and ignorant whether they laugh or cry around his coffin. There is neither wax tapers nor coffin: the dead corpse being covered with straw, is thrown into a cart, and the driver whips on to the church-yard. The obsequies of the magistrates are performed rather a little less cavalierly: their bodies are carried by bearers; their brother magistrates and their relations follow in precession; a large cloak covers the corpse from head to foot: a streamer of crape floats behind it in the air, and a huge flapped hat shades the face from the light of heaven! All the burial places are without the gates of the cities and towns. The most absolute democracy reigns in them: the rich man and the beggar, the servant and the master, confounded one with the other, rot in conjunction.
After the example of the Greeks and Romans, the Swiss choose to live among the dead;—like them, they make the church-yards their favourite walks; like them, they plant these spots with sycamores, with cypresses, and other melancholy trees, which recall the idea of death, and invite affliction, to repose under their shade.
The Swiss, says
de Langle,
do not pay obedience to that wise precept of
Moses,
"Keep your dead for three days"! At Zuric, at Berne, and among the little cantons, if you happen to sleep a little longer than usual, they think you dead, and inter you immediately. In the canton of Berne more especially, a sick man scarcely appears to utter his last sigh, when the people begin to strip him. They are contented with simply feeling his pulse, with applying their hand to his breast, or presenting a glass to his lips, to discover if he yet breathes!
Among other unfortunate people, who have been heard to cry from within their coffin, "Where are you carrying me, I am not dead;" the people there still recollect and repeat with great commiseration, the story of Madame
Langhans,
who was actually buried alive! The tomb of this lady, remarks
de Langle,
as well as
Coxe,
is worthy of inspection. The monument is placed on the ground, as we observed when speaking of Berne, and represents a grave, covered with a broken tomb-stone. Madame
Langhans
is supposed to have heard the trumpet that is to proclaim the day of judgment, to have awoke at its sound, to have torn her winding sheet, and to have arisen from her grave, to take her place in the celestial mansions.
This composition, at once warm and original in this conception, equally simple and sublime, and for the idea of which, we shall in vain search
Homer, Pindar,
and all the poets, both ancient and modern, electrifies and excites our attention in an uncommon degree.
This monument, remarks
de Langle,
is the production of M.
Nahl,
a young sculptor of Sweden, who, after having travelled throughout Europe, and displayed every where the most astonishing proofs of the warmth and originality of his genius, went to London, where he died a prisoner for debt!
How often in his life time, may not the man of genius exclaim, "My kingdom is not of this world!" He who possesses a mediocrity of talents, is the man who is beloved. We fly from and hate the man of penetration, and the man of abilities; we dread his piercing eye; we would willingly destroy him; he resembles a troublesome neighbour, whose windows overlook our own apartments!
The Swedish artists, remarks
de Langle,
are not fortunate, when they leave their own country. I esteemed living, and I saw at Genoa, while dead, a painter, born at Stockholm, who was found lifeless before his lodgings, and who had been so enfeebled by want, that he had not sufficient strength to open his own door. This young man was endowed with one quality, equally amiable and interesting. His humanity was such, that he never put his money, when he had any, in his pocket: he always held it in his hand, that he might not hear a recapitulation of the miseries of those who addressed him for charity!
The prisons in Switzerland, ought to serve as a model for all the prisons in Europe. They are large, healthy, well aired, and each apartment contains a bed, a little stove, a window, and a night chair. The prisoners receive a pound and a half of bread, and a certain quantity of flesh, or of grains daily. They have clean linen once a week, and cloaths when they are wanted. The petty rogues are separate from the criminals, committed for atrocious offences, and each prison has an hospital or infirmary attached to it. The use of spirituous liquors is prohibited. We never see in Switzerland, as elsewhere, those barbarous gaolers, who make the very air on which their prisoners respire, venal, and sell to them at an exorbitant price, the stinking straw on which they are permitted to repose!
The use of dungeons is unknown in Switzerland, and ought to be proscribed in every part of the globe. When a prisoner is enclosed and chained, when the doors are well locked and barred, flight is impracticable, and it is out of the power of fortune to contrive an escape.
Whoever does not intend to commit injustice, or to make law-suits immortal, ought to give judgment in public, says a King of Macedonia. The Swiss, who adhere to this maxim, try all their criminals in the open air. Civil causes are canvassed privately: but the parties never languish under the tortures of suspence; for this people seem to have taken the prompt decisions of the Athenians, and the Roman tribunals as their models.
The punishment of death is almost fallen into disuse; the people talk of an execution for ten years after it has taken place. In Switzerland, they are economical of human blood. The magistrates appear to be actuated by the maxim which inculcates that, society ought not to cut off one of its members for a slight offence.
Instead of being subjected to capital punishments, felons are imprisoned in the house of correction. The regulations in these houses are so excellent and so mild, criminals are so well fed, and so well attended, that if it were not for the iron ring about the leg, the hook at the neck, and the chain by which they are linked together, many worthy people who are in poverty, would be very happy in their situation.
If the atrocity of a crime should oblige the judges to pronounce sentence of death, the cord is the only instrument of punishment; so humane are they, that the culprit is first made drunk, and then is hanged, as it were, without perceiving it, he has no more idea of the death he is to suffer, than an oak about to be cut down, has of its destruction!
The Swiss, says
de Langle,
carry on such an immense trade in printed calicoes and ribbands, that they may be said to furnish half the world with topknots, cloaks, and petticoats.
Sully,
the Minister of
Henry
IV. looked on those men as fools, who pretended to an uncommon share of intrepidity, by having doubled the Cape of Good Hope;
Sully,
who assigned to manufactures the last rank in political economy, who preferred the most common fruit and pulse, to all the scarce and costly productions that the Indies could boast; has advised the Swiss to abandon their looms, and betake themselves to the plough. For want of labourers, one half of their country remains uncultivated; they, however, despise the earth, disdain its productions, and think that agriculture would dishonour them!
From hence proceeds the necessity of importing, at a great expence, from the Milanese, from France, from Alsace, from the circle of Swabia, and the marquisate of Baden, corn, eatables, and provisions of all kinds, which the delicate hands of the inhabitants disdain to procure for themselves. From hence proceed those heaths, which seem to have no end; from hence those putrid and extensive marches, which are to be met with, particularly in the canton of Berne, which by means of their pestilential vapours and unhealthy fogs, destroy a number of children annually.
The cultivation of the earth has not always been despised in Switzerland; for their historians recite the following anecdote, with no small share of pride.
A Duke of Austria, while travelling on horseback in the canton of Zuric, saw, near to the high road, four noble horses harnessed to a plough; a youth, who possessed a charming person, directed their motions, while an old man, whose hair was whitened by age, opened the furrows. Surprised at the superior air of the two labourers, no less than at the beauty of the cattle, the Duke stopped, and turning toward the Grand Master of his household, said, "I have never seen such respectable peasants, or such fine horses before." "Be not astonished, my Lord," replies this officer, "these are the Baron
de Hugi
and his son; behold, at the foot of yonder hill, is the ancient castle belonging to their family; and if you are still in doubt, to-morrow you will see them come to do homage to you."
Accordingly, on the next day, the Duke perceives the same labourers arrive on horseback at his court, attended by a numerous retinue of their vassals. After the baron had paid the usual homage to the sovereign, he presented his son to him, and entered into conversation. The Duke being unable to stifle his curiosity, seized on this opportunity to satisfy his impatience. "Was it you," said he, "whom I saw near to the highway, holding a plough superbly decorated?" "Yes my Lord," replies the Baron, "next to a war, undertaken for the defence of one's country, I know of no occupation more honourable for a gentleman, than that of cultivating his own estates; I, therefore, do this, as an example to my son,"
Thus thought, and thus acted the ancient Swiss, who equalling the Romans in their courage, resemble them also in their taste for agriculture, and a country life. The same hands that wielded the lance or carried the banner, thought not themselves dishonoured by using the spade, and brightening the plough-share. More than once, in the midst of the Alps, and at the foot of Mount Jura, as well as on the banks of the Tiber, the General has been seen leaving his plough, to repel, at the head of his equals, the enemies of his country; and returning triumphant, he has been known to follow his suspended labours with additional ardour. One may see from hence, that a state may be as much indebted for its prosperity to
Ceres,
as to
Bellona.
But it is more especially in an age, when agriculture appears to be honoured, and when economical societies are every where occupied in dissertations and observations, that the people of Switzerland should be so neglectful of their marshes. There is no land, however barren it is, or however much it may be covered with briars and thorns, but the spade or the hedging bill will make it wave with a golden harvest, or bloom with roses.
END OF SWITZERLAND.
Map
of the ISLAND of
CORSICA.
OF THE ISLAND OF CORSICA;
FROM BOSWELL, AND OTHERS.
CHAP. I.
Situation, Extent, Air, Soil, Productions, and Population.
CORSICA is an island of the Mediterranean sea, situated between the 41st and 43d degree of north latitude, and between the 8th and 10th degree of east longitude. It has on the north, the Ligurian sea, and gulph of Genoa. On the east, the Tuscan sea; on the south, a strait of ten miles, which separates it from Sardinia; and on the west, the Mediterranean. It is about 100 miles south of Genoa; and 80 south-west of Leghorn, from whence it can plainly be seen when the weather is clear. It is 150 miles in length, and from 40 to 50 in breadth, being broadest about the middle. It is reckoned 300 miles in circumference; but an exact measurement around it, would extend to 500 miles, as it is edged with many promontories, and with a variety of bays.
Pliny,
the elder, hath given us a short, but very accurate account of the geography of Corsica. It extendeth from north to south, and is about 150 miles in length, for the most part 50 in breadth, and 322 in circumference. It hath 33 states, and two colonies; Mariana, founded by
Marius,
and Aleria, founded by the Dictator
Sylla.
Of these 33 states, not above five or six can now be traced; and the colonies are only to be marked by their ruins.
Seneca,
the philosopher, hath left us two most horrid pictures of Corsica, very false indeed, but executed with uncommon strength of fancy and expression. Stoic as he was, of a grave and severe demeanour, he did not escape the Emperor's jealousy, but being accused as one of the many gallants with whom the profligate
Julia
had been guilty of adultery, he was banished to Corsica, where he remained for seven years; and when in the province of Cape Corso, they still shew an old ruin, called
Seneca's
tower. Here he composed his book
de Consolatione
to
Polybius,
and his mother
Helvia,
with several other works; and here he indulged his fretted imagination, in epigrams full of spleen, against the place of his exile. He hath also vented his spleen in the same extravagant manner in his books
de Consolatione,
But we must consider, that, notwithstanding all the firmness of
Seneca,
his mind was then clouded with melancholy, and every object around him, appeared in rueful colours.
Corsica is in reality, a most agreeable island. It had from the ancient Greeks, the name of
Kallista,
on account of its beauty; and we may believe it was held in considerable estimation, since
Callimachus
places it next to his favourite Delus.
It is charmingly situated in the Mediterranean, from whence continual breezes fan and cool it in summer, and the surrounding body of water keeps it warm in winter, so that it is one of the most temperate countries in that part of the globe. Its air is fresh and healthful, except in one or two places, which are moist, and where the air, especially in summer, is suffocating and sickly; but in general, the Corsicans breathe a pure atmosphere, which is also keen enough to brace their fibres, more than one would expect under so warm a sun.
This island was anciently a small kingdom, and in the year 806, was conquered by the Genoese, who drove the Saracens out of it. In the eleventh century, the island was taken from them by the Pisanese. In the 15th century, the Genoese again got possession of it. They have since been dispossessed of it at different times by other powers; but this island has always been ceded to them again, till within these few years, when Genoa finding the Corsicans discontented with their government, surrendered its right to the King of France, under whose dominions it continued during the French Monarch, but on the revolution of this country, the Corsicans in a formal manner, requested the protection of England, and surrendered its crown to the King of Britain, and it is now governed by a Viceroy.
Corsica has indeed been pretty generally represented as unwholesome, which perhaps has been owing to the bad report given of it by the Romans, who established their colonies at Aleria and Mariana, which from their damp situation, occasioned a great death among the inhabitants, and accordingly, these colonies soon went to ruin. But all the interior parts of the island, have very good air.
This island is remarkably well furnished with good harbours, so that we may apply to it, what
Florus
says of the Campania,
'Nihil hospitalius mari!'
Nothing more hospitable to the sea. It has on the north, Centuri; on the west, San Fiorenzo, Isola Rossa, Calvi, and Ajaccio; on the south, it has Bonifaccio; and on the east, Porto-beccio, Bastia, and Macinajo.
Diodorus Siculus
celebrates Corsica for the excellence of its harbours. The island being of very easy access, says this writer, has a most beautiful port, called the Syracusian. This, which was anciently called the Syracusian, has now the name of Porto Vecchio; of which it is proper to take particular notice.
Porto Vecchio is a spacious haven, capable of containing a very large fleet. It is five miles long, above a mile and a half broad, has a great depth of water, and a good bottom, and being land-locked on every side, is well sheltered from storms. Nature has also placed a high and rocky mountain, like a stately column, to point it out at a great distance. In short, Porto Vecchio may vie with the most distinguished harbours in Europe.
The only objection to it is, the badness of the air occasioned by the marshy grounds which lie in the neighbourhood. But this disadvantage may be remedied, as has been done at Leghorn.
From this account of the harbour of Corsica, it will appear of how great consequence an alliance with this island might be to any of the maritime powers of Europe. For, a fleet stationed there, might command the navigation of Genoa, Tuscany, and the ecclesiastical state, that between Spain and Naples, and a good share of that to the Levant; not to mention its influence over that of Sardinia. And it may be material to observe, that vessels stationed in the ports of Corsica, might be formidable to France, as the western side of the island is directly opposite to the extensive coast of Province, on which a descent might be made with cruisers in a very short time.
Diodorus Siculus,
describes Corsica as an extensive island, very mountainous, abounding in large forests, and watered with many rivulets: indeed, the interior parts of the island, are in general mountainous, though interspersed with fruitful valleys; but have a peculiar grand appearance, and inspire one with the genius of the place, with that undaunted and inflexible spirit, which will not bow to oppression.
The great division of Corsica, is into the
Di qua,
and the
Di la dei monti.
The country on this side, and the country on the other side of the mountains, reckoning from Bastia. By the mountains, is understood that great range of them, which rises beyond Aleria, and stretches across the island, intersecting it, however, by no means equally; for the country
Di qua
is a third more than that of
Di la.
Another division is into provinces, of which there are nine; for although a great part of this country long went under the denomination of
Feudos,
and is still called so in the maps, the jurisdiction of the signors, is now gradually wearing out, and will soon be sunk into the general power of the state.
The next division of Corsica, is into
Pieves.
A pieve is properly an ecclesiastical appointment, containing a great number of parishes, over which is placed a
Pievano,
who superintends the priests, and draws a certain part of the tithes. But this division is as much used for civil affairs, as for those of the church.
There are large tracts of uninhabited land in Corsica, mostly covered with woods; to some parts of which, the peasants resort in summer to feed their flocks, and to gather chesnuts, making little sheds for themselves to lie under. There is hardly such a thing, as a detached farm-house to be seen in the island, like what are scattered every where over Great Britain; for the Corsicans gather together in little villages, which they call by corruption,
Paeses,
countries. I remember, says
Boswell,
when I was first told that I should travel a great many miles without seeing a country, I could not conceive what they meant. The Corsicans are in greater safety, and have more society with each other by their living in villages, which is still the custom in the canton of Switzerland, and some parts of Germany, as it was anciently among all nations.
The Corsican villages are frequently built on the very summit of their mountains, on craggy cliffs of so stupendous a height, that the houses can hardly be distinguished during the day; but at night, when the shepherds kindle their fires, the reflection of such a variety of lights, makes these aerial villages have a most picturesque and pleasing appearance.
Corsica is extremely well watered. Its principal lakes are those of Ino and Crena, about two miles from each other; both situated on the highest mountain in the island, called by the ancients Mons Aureus, and now Monte Rotondo. It is of an amazing height, and may equal any of the Alps. From the top of it, there is a most extensive view of all Corsica, of the seas and of Sardinia, with distant prospects of Italy and France; while the Mediterranean and many of its little isles are also under the eye. But people seldom go to take this view; for the upper part of the mountain is almost a perpendicular rock, so that a man must climb two miles with the help of his hands and knees; and for the greatest part of the year, this immense mountain is covered with snow. These two lakes of Ino and Crena, are both of considerable extent.
The rivers of Corsica are the Gola, a large and beautiful river, which takes its rise from the lake of Ino, traverses several provinces, and after a course of above 70 miles, empties itself into the sea, just by the ancient city of Mariana. The Tavignano, is also a considerable river, which takes its rise from the lake of Crena, and after traversing a long tract of rude country, empties itself into the sea, just by the ancient city of Aleria. The Restonica, which tho' but a small river, is famous in Corsica, on account of its particular qualities. Its water is clear as chrystal, and most agreeable to drink, so that
Seneca
certainly never saw the Restonica, otherwise he would not have said that Corsica had not
haustus aquae,
a draught of water. The Rectonica is said to be of a mineral nature, and very wholesome. It hath a virtue of whitening every thing. The stones in its channel are like as many pieces of chalk. It will make iron look almost like silver, and never rust. The Corsicans frequently dip the barrels and locks of their guns in it.
There are several other rivers of which we shall not give a particular description. There are also a great many rivulets which serve to enrich the country, and keep it constantly fresh.
It hath been said, that with proper care and expence, some of the Corsican rivers might be rendered navigable; but this would be a very idle project; for their courses are exceedingly rapid, and when there has been a great deal of rain, the torrents which tumble from the mountains, often bring down large fragments of rock, which would dash in pieces any vessels that they should encounter.
Thus are many mineral springs, both of hot and cold kind, in different parts of the island; which the inhabitants of the country find to be very efficacious for the cure of most distempers.
Corsica is extremely well supplied with fish. Trout and eel are found in great plenty, very fat, and of an uncommon size. But the rich treasure of fish for Corsica, is in its sea; for on all its coasts, there is the greatest variety of all the best kinds, and in particular, a sort of ton or sturgeon, and the small fish called the Sardinas, which is of an exquisite taste; and in several places the Corsicans have beds of oysters, remarkably large; of which they have not only a sufficiency for their own consumption, but export a great many to Italy.
From the earliest times, Corsica has been famous for its excellent fish.
Juvenal,
when satyrising the excessive luxury of the Romans in his time, who brought every delicacy from the greatest distance, says,
Mullus erit domini quem misit Corsica.
JUV. SAT. v. l. 92.
'A precious mullet from the Corsick seas,
Nor less the master's pamper'd taste can please.'
Corsica hath as great a variety of animals, as most countries. The horses here, are in general of a very small breed.
Procopius
in his wars of the Goths, says, they run about in herds, and were little bigger than sheep. They are, however, remarkably lively, and very hardy; somewhat of the nature of Welch ponies, or of the little horses called shelties, which are found in the high lands and islands of Scotland. The asses and mules here, are also small, but very strong, and wonderfully agile in scrambling along the steep rocky mountains, for there are hardly any made roads in the island. Had their country been open and accessible, they had been easily subdued by regular troops. It was in a good measure owing to her rugged hills, that ancient Scotland preserved her independence.
The black cattle are larger in proportion than the horses; but the greatest part of the island, is not very proper pasture for them; so in general, they do not give much milk, and their beef is lean and tough. There is not so great occasion for milk in Corsica, as they make no butter, oil supplying its place, as in Italy, and most warm countries. They, however, make a good deal of cheese in some pieves.
There are here a vast number of goats which browse upon the wild hills, and put one in mind of
Virgil's
Bucolicks, where mention is so often made of this animal. Sheep are also very plentiful, and have fine feeding; so that their mutton is very sweet and juicy, and atones for the badness of the beef.
The Corsican sheep are generally black, or of a dusky colour; a white sheep being here and there to be met with in a flock, as black ones are amongst our sheep. The wool is coarse and hairy, which the people of the country impute to their sheep being of a mongrel race. They have had thoughts of helping this, by importing a good breed from England or Spain. But it is averred by the breeders of sheep, that the quality of the wool is not so much owing to the kind of sheep, as to the nature of their pasture; for those sheep who bear very rough fleeces when upon one farm, will, when put upon another of a different soil, bear fleeces exceedingly fine. It is very common here, for sheep to have more horns than two: many of them have six.
The forests of this island abound in deer. And there is here a curious animal, called the Muffoli. It resembles a stag, and has horns like a ram, and a skin uncommonly hard. It is very wild, and lives on the highest mountains, where it can hardly be approached, it is so nimble. It will jump from rock to rock, at the distance of many feet, and if hard chaced to the extremity of a cliff, from whence it can reach no other, it will throw itself over, and with surprising agility, pitch upon its horns, without receiving any hurt. When these creatures are young, they are very easily tamed.
The Corsican animals in general, appear wild to strangers.
Polybius
gives us a reason for it. All the animals in the island, appear to be wild; on this account, that it is so rude and steep, and so thick with trees, that the shepherds are not able to follow their flocks! The wild boar is found here in great plenty. Indeed their swine, which are very numourous, have all a mixture of the wild breed, and being fed on chesnuts, they are agreeable food.
The Corsicans are very fond of hunting the wild boar, for which there is here a race of dogs, particularly excellent. They have smooth hair, and are between a mastiff, and a strong shepherd's dog. They are large, and exceedingly fierce; but when once they have taken an attachment, they are very faithful to their master, watch him night and day, and are most undaunted in his defence.
Procopius
tells us, that there were in Corsica, apes wonderfully resembling men, and indeed this island, and all that quarter of Europe, before it was well inhabited, must, on account of its vicinity to Africa, have swarmed with apes. Of these, however, there are at present no remains; which is a proof that different species of animals migrate from one country to another, and when their race wears out in a particular part of the globe, it may be numerous somewhere else. Certain it is, that in many countries, the race of several animals, well known there in ancient times, is totally extinguished.
There are hares enough in Corsica, but no rabbits; though
Polybius,
when talking of the animals of this island, says there are rabbits, and is very minute as to their form and qualities; saying, that at a distance, they might be taken for little hares, but when caught, a great difference is perceived, both in their appearance and taste. There are here no wolves, nor any of the larger wild beasts, unless foxes can be reckoned so, which are here indeed extremely large and ravenous. It is said, they not only destroy sheep, but have been known to devour even foals.
There is also a variety of birds in Corsica; eagles, vultures, wood-pigeon, turtle, thrush, blackbird, and many of the smaller species; and plenty of game, as partridges, woodcocks, snipes, and water fowl in the lakes. The poor thrushes and blackbirds too, must be reckoned as part of the game, for they are very numerous; and from there being a great quantity of the arbutus fruit in the island, they are exceedingly fat, and are esteemed a particular delicacy. It is barbarous to destroy, for the mere luxury of the table, birds which make such fine music; surely their melody affords more enjoyment, than what can be had from eating them. They are, however, a very common dish in the southern countries, particularly in France.
In general, it may be observed, that this island is so privileged by nature, that there is no poisonous animal in it, for though there are some scorpions, their bite carries no venom. The creature in Corsica, which approaches nearest to a poisonous animal, is a spider, of an extraordinary size. Its bite will irritate, and inflame to a great degree, and the swelling which it occasions, is very alarming to one unacquainted with it; but it soon goes away, and no bad consequences follow, more than from the stinging of our bees. This spider, has by some been mistaken for the famous tarantula of the kingdom of Naples.
Trees grow remarkably well in Corsica. There is here almost every sort of fruit trees, but it is principally adorned with pines of different kinds, oaks, and chesnuts. All of these are to be found of a great size; some of the pines in particular, are exceeding lofty, and the chesnut tree grows to a prodigious bigness.
There are extensive forests in different places. That of Vico is most remarkable. There is in Corsica, timber sufficient to maintain a very large fleet, and the timber here, is much harder than would be expected in so southern a latitude, owing to the rocky soil of the country, to the perpetual currents of fresh air through its vallies, and to the temperature that proceeds from some of its mountains, being half the year in snow, and this is also one great cause of the salubrity of the climate, in which Corsica has much the advantage of Sardinia.
The ilex, or ever-green oak, is very common here, and gives the country a cheerful look, even in the depth of winter. The lemon, the orange, the fig, and the almond trees, are also frequent. There are, however, few walnut trees, and the apple, pear, plum, and cherry, are not remarkably good, which is probably owing to no care being taken of them. Corsica has the pomegranate in great perfection; also the India fig and the aloe, which last is said to flower here, as well as in the East.
The Corsican mountains are covered with the arbutus, or strawberry tree, which gives a rich glowing appearance, as far as the eye can reach. Indeed the island is very like the country, which
Virgil,
in his third book of Georgics, describes as the seat of rural felicity,
The mulberry grows well here, and is not so much in danger from blights and thunder storms, as in Italy and the south of France; so that Corsica is capable of producing abundance of silk. We must not omit the laurel to which Corsica has surely a very good claim. The box tree is a very common plant here. In most countries it is dwarfish, and generally used only for hedges; but it grows to a good size in Corsica, and may be reckoned a timber tree.
Bochart
has very ingeniously shewn, that the benches of the Tyrian ships, which, according to the common translation of
Ezechiel,
are said to have been made of ivory, brought out of the isles of Chittim, were most probably made of Corsican wood.
Theophrastus,
in his history of plants, expatiates on the wonderful size of Corsican trees; to which he says, the pines of Latium were nothing to be compared. He also says the trees were immensely thick here; his expression is very strong: the whole island seemed crowded and savage with woods. He relates a strange tradition, that the Romans, who were struck with the vastness of these woods, built here a prodigious large ship, which carried no less than 50 sails, but was lost in the ocean. This author gives another testimony to the goodness of the climate, soil, and air of the island; Corsica, therefore, says he, whether in respect of its temperate climate, or in respect of its soil, or of its air, greatly excelleth other countries,
The different kinds of grain in Corsica, are wheat, barley, rye, and millet, all of which grow extremely well in several parts of the country. There are no oats here, as indeed hardly ever in any of the southern countries. They give their horses and mules barley. The millet is excellent in Corsica, and when mixed with rye, makes a wholesome bread, of which the peasants are very fond. Chesnuts may be reckoned a sort of grain in Corsica; for they answer all the purposes of it. The Corsicans eat them when roasted, by way of bread. They even have them ground into flour, and of that they make very good cakes.
There is a vast quantity of honey produced in Corsica; for the island has, from the earliest times, been remarkable for its swarms of bees. When it was subject to the Romans, a tribute was imposed upon it, of no less than 200,000 pounds of wax yearly. Indeed the laurel, the almond tree, and the myrtle, in the flowers of which, the bees find so much sweetness, are very common here; and the hills are all covered with wild thyme, and other fragrant herbs. Yet its honey hath always been accounted bitter, by reason of the box-wood and yew, as
Diodorus
and
Pliny
observe.
Many people think the bitterness which is in the Corsican honey, very agreeable. The reason which
Pliny
assigns for the bitterness of the honey, he also assigns for the excellence of the wax. Having mentioned the Punic, the Pontic, and the Cretan, he says, after these, the Corsican wax, because it is made from the box-tree, is said to have a certain medicinal virtue. They keep their bees in long wooden cases, or trunks of trees, with a covering of the back of the cork tree. When they want honey, they burn a little juniper wood, the smoak of which, makes the bees retire. They then take an iron instrument with a sharp edged crook at the end of it, and bring out the greatest part of the honey-comb, leaving only a little for the bees, who work the case full again. By taking the honey in this way, they never kill a bee.
There are in Corsica a great many mines of lead, copper, iron, and silver. Near to San Florenzo, is a very rich silver mine, yielding about the value of five pounds sterling, for every hundred pounds weight of ore. The Corsican iron is remarkably good, having a toughness nearly equal to that of the prepared iron of Spain, famous over all the world. It is said, that the true Spanish barrels are made of iron which has been worn and beaten for a long time in heads of nails in the shoes of the mule, who travel with a flow and incessant pace along the hard roads. But a very small proportion of the great quantity of Spanish barrels, which are sold in all parts of Europe, can have this advantage. The metal of the Corsican barrels is little inferior to that of the generality of Spanish ones, and they begin to make them very well.
An allusion has been drawn from the iron mines, and the name of Corsica, to the character of its inhabitants.
Hieronymus de Marinis,
a Genoese, who writes on the dominion and government of the republic, says of this island, that the bowels of the earth abound in mines of iron; nature conspiring by a sort of prejudice, to form a similarity between the name and the nature of the people; for the Corsicans have hearts of iron, and are therefore prone to arms and the sword. There are also mines of allum and of saltpetre in several parts of Corsica.
There is here a kind of granate, extremely hard, some of it approaching in quality to the oriental granate, which was so famous in Rome, and of which such noble columns are remaining, said to have been brought from Egypt. There is here likewise porphyry, and a great variety of jasper. The magnificent chapel of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, at Florence, is finished with Corsican jasper, with which its inside, as we have remarked, is elegantly incrusted, and has a most beautiful appearance.
On the borders of the lake of Ino, they find pieces of rock chrystal very clear, and with five sides, as if they had been cut with a lapidary. They find some of it too in the mountains of Istria. It is so hard, that it strikes fire, and the Corsicans frequently use it for flints to their fusils.
Near to Bastia, there is found a sort of mineral, called by the country people,
petra quadrata,
because it is always found in little square bits. It has much about the hardness of marble, a colour like iron ore, and weight like lead. The Corsicans ascribe certain mystical virtues to this stone, as appears from an old monkish distich made in its praise:
Petrae quadratae duro de marmore natae
Innumeras doles quis numerare potest?
i. e.
Of the square stone of marble grown,
The virtues fell, what man can tell!
From the description of Corsica now given, it will appear to be a country of considerable importance. According to
Templeman's
tables, it contains 2,520 square miles.
The number of inhabitants in Corsica, has not been exactly taken of late, but they may be reckoned 220,000 souls. The number, however, is much less than it was in ancient times. It is well observed, by an able writer, that the depopulation of many countries, seem to have been first occasioned by the havock which the Romans made among the smaller states and cities, before they could fully establish the sovereign power. In no state could this cause of depopulation take place, more than in Corsica, for in no state were the nations harder to be subdued. When to the Roman havock, we add the reiterated tumults, which, during a course of ages, have shaken this island, we need be at no loss to account why the number of its inhabitants is diminished.
The principal cities of this island are Bastia, and Corte, of which we shall treat in the succeeding chapter, as also of the general characters, customs, and manners of the inhabitants of Corsica.
CHAP. II.
Of the Cities, &c.
BASTIA, situated on the eastern coast of the island, has for a long time been reckoned the capital of Corsica. It was here that the Genoese held the seat of their sovereigns power; and indeed Bastia is still the largest town in the island. It has a stately appearance from the sea, being built on the declivity of a hill, though upon entering the town, a stranger is a good deal disappointed; for the houses are in general ill built, and the streets narrow, and from the situation of the town, necessarily very steep. There are, however, several pretty good buildings here. It hath a castle, which commands the town and harbour, which though but a sorry fortification at present, is capable of being made a place of considerable strength, as it hath a range of hills behind it, on which little redoubts might be erected; and with these, and a few substantial out-works towards the sea, it might stand a pretty long siege.
The church of
S. John
in this city, by no means an inelegant building, belongs to the Jesuits, who have here a college. Their garden is finely situated, large and well laid out. This they owe in a great measure to the French, who have been stationed in Corsica at different times. From them the inhabitants have learned much of what they know of the arts and conveniencies of life. There is here a convent of Lagarists or Missionaries, a vast and magnificent house, almost overhanging the sea. The convent of the Franciscans, and that of the Capuchins, are situated on the rising ground behind Bastia. The last stands in a beautiful exposure, and has really a very pretty front. The number of inhabitants in this town, are estimated at 10,000.
From Bastia south, to beyond Aleria, is one continued plain, between 50 and 60 miles in length, proper for raising all sorts of grain as well as pasturage.
In the centre of the island, stands Corte, which is properly its capital, and will one day be a city of eminence. Here is the general's palace, and here is the supreme seat of justice where the executive power constantly resides, and where the legislature is annually assembled; and here also is the university, which in time, may become a distinguished seat of learning.
Corte is situated part at the foot, and part on the declivity of a rock, in a plain surrounded with prodigious high mountains, and at the conflux of two rivers, the Tavignano and Restonica. It has a great deal of rich country about it, and a wonderful natural strength, being hemmed in by almost impassable mountains and narrow defiles, which may be defended by a handful of men, against very large armies.
Upon a point of the rock prominent above the rest, and on every side perpendicular, stands the castle or citadel. It is at the back of the town, and is almost impregnable, there being only one winding passage to climb up to it, and that not capable of admitting more than two persons abreast. In the plain on the north of Corte, is a convent of Capuchi
, and
n the side of the hill to the south of the city, there is a convent of Franciscans. Here the General lived while his palace was repairing; and
ere all
of respect are lodged. From this convent is the best view of the City of Corte.
, situated on the bay of the same name, and on the western coast of the island, says
Boswell,
is the prettiest town in Corsica. It has many very handsome streets, and beautiful walks; a citadel and a palace for the Genoese governor. The inhabitants of this town, are the genteelest people in the island, having had a good deal of intercourse with the French.
Such is the only information we have been able to procure, respecting their cities. We now proceed to treat of their character, customs, and manners.
The genius and character of the inhabitants of Corsica, deserve to be particularly considered, because some authors in ancient times, and the Genoese in modern times, have represented them in the most unfavourable light. It is, indeed, strange to find two such authors as
Strabo
and
Diodorus,
differing so widely, respecting the character of the people of this island, and seemingly contradicting each other.
Strabo
says, those who dwell on the mountains of Cyrnus, as it was called by the Romans, and live by robberies, are wilder than even wild beasts. Therefore when the Roman Generals make irruptions into their country, and falling upon their strong holds, carry off numbers of these people, and bring them to Rome; it is wonderful to see what wildness and brutality the creatures discover: for, they either are impatient of life, and lay violent hands on themselves; or, if they do live, it is in such a state of stupefaction and insensibility, that those who purchase them for slaves, have a very bad bargain; though they pay very little money for them, and solely regret their happening to fall into their hands.
Diodorus,
on the other hand, says, the Corsican slaves seem to differ from all others, in their utility for the offices of life, for which they are fitted by a peculiar gift of nature. These islanders live among themselves with a humanity and justice, beyond all other barbarians. In every part of the economy of life, they shew a remarkable regard to equity.
M. Burnaby,
who visited this island, thinks these very different accounts may be reconciled, by supposing the authors to speak of the Corsicans, under different points of view;
Strabo,
as of enemies,
Diodorus,
as of friends; and then they will not only be found reconcileable, but will exactly correspond with the character of the Corsicans at present. In war, they are furious as lions. Death is esteemed nothing; nor is any power sufficient to make them yield against their inclination; they become irritated, and will not brook restraint. But in peace and civil life, they are mild and just to the greatest degree, and have all those amiable qualities, which
Diodorus
ascribes to them. Where their service is voluntary, or they are attached to their masters, by kind and gentle treatment, they have the other perfections which he allows them.
The following instances are related by
Paoli,
of the spirit and patriotism of the Corsicans, in their conflicts with the Genoese, for recovering their liberties. A serjeant, said he, who fell in one of our desperate actions, when just a dying, wrote to me thus: "I salute you: take care of my aged father. In two hours I shall be with the rest who have bravely died for their country.
A Corsican gentleman, who had been taken prisoner by the Genoese, was thrown into a dungeon, where he was chained to the ground. While he was in this dismal situation, the Genoese sent a message to him, that if he would accept a commission in their service, he might have it. 'No, said he; were I to accept your offer, it would be with a determined purpose to take the first opportunity of returning to the service of my country. But I will not accept it. For I would not have my countrymen suspect even for one moment that I could be unfaithful.' Though the affection between relations is very strong in the Corsicans, they will give up those who are the nearest allied to them, for the good of their country, and would sacrifice such as deserted to the Genoese.
Paoli
says
Boswell,
gave me a noble instance of a Corsican's feeling and greatness of mind. A criminal, said he, was condemned to die. His nephew came to me with a lady of distinction, that she might solicit his pardon. The nephew's anxiety, made him think that the lady did not speak with sufficient force and earnestness. He therefore advanced, and addressed himself to me; Sir, is it proper for me to speak? as if he felt that it was unlawful to make such an application. I bid him go on. Sir, said he, with the deepest concern, may I beg the life of my uncle? If it is granted, his relations will make a gift to the state of 1000 zechins. We we will furnish 50 soldiers in pay, during the war. We will agree that my uncle shall be banished, and engage he shall never return to the island. I knew the nephew to be a man of worth, and I answered him. You are acquainted with the circumstances of this case. Such is my confidence in you, that if you will say that giving your uncle a pardon, would be just, useful, or honourable for Corsica, I promise you it shall be granted. He turned about burst into tears, and left me, saying, I would not have the hnour of my country sold for 1000 zechins: and his uncle suffered.
The following remarkable anecdote, related by
Paoli,
in favour of the heroism of the Irish, deserves likewise to be recorded. At the siege of Tortona, the commander of the army which lay before the town, ordered
Carew,
an Irish officer, in the service of Naples, to advance with a detachment to a particular post. Having given his orders, he whispered to
Carew:
Sir, I know you to be a gallant man. I have therefore put you upon this duty. I tell you in confidence, it is certain death for you all. I place you there to make the enemy spring a mine below you.
Carew
made a bow to the General, and led his men in silence to the dreadful post. He there stood with an undaunted countenance, and having called to one of the soldiers for a draught of wine, Here, said he, I drink to all those who bravely fall in battle. Fortunately at that instant, Tortona capitulated, and
Carew
escaped. But he had thus a full opportunity of displaying a rare instance of determined intrepidity. It is with pleasure we record this anecdote, so much to the honour of a gentleman of that nation, on which illiberal reflections are too often thrown, by those of whom it little deserves them. Whatever may be the rough jokes of wealthy insolence, or the envious sarcasms of needy jealousy, the Irish have ever been, and will continue to be most highly respected on the continent.
The Corsicans are naturally quick and lively, and have a particular turn for eloquence.
Hieronymus de Marinis
gives them this character. Their mountains abound in swarms of bees, and flow with milk and honey; like the genius of the Corsicans, who, while they have milk and honey under their tongues, have also a sting, and are therefore born for the forum. They have all a turn for the arts. Painting, indeed, has not yet flourished among them, but they succeed well in music and poetry. There are few of them who do not play upon the citra, an old Moorish instrument, which they are pleased to think the ancient cythara. It has a sweet and romantic sound, and many of their airs are tender and beautiful.
They have not yet produced any large and finished poem; but they have many little pieces, exceedingly pretty, most of them on war, or on love. They have also many little ballads and madrigals, full of drollery and keen satire against the Genoese; and they have their essays of grave humour, and various allegories, respecting themselves and their enemies. They have in particular, a curious paraphrase of the Lord's prayer, where all the petitions are strangely turned into severe accusations against the Genoese.
The Corsicans are in general of small statue and rather hard favoured, much like the Scotch highlanders; though as we find among these, so we also find among the Corsicans, many of a good size and comely countenance.
The manners of the Corsicans, have a great similarity with those of the ancient Germans, as described by
Tacitus.
They have not, however, the same habit of drinking; for they are extremely temperate. Their morals are strict and chaste to an uncommon degree, owing in part to good principles, unhurt by luxury; and partly to the exercise of private revenge against such as violate the honour of their women.
What
Tacitus
says of ancient Germany, we may say of Corsica. Nobody there laughs at vice; nor is corrupting and being corrupted, called the way of the world.
The Corsicans like the Germans of old, are extremely indolent, The women do the greatest part of the drudgery work, as is also the custom among the Scots highlanders. Yet they are very active in war, like the same Germans, of whom
Tacitus
says, 'By a wonderful variety of nature, the same men are fond of indolence, and impatient of rest.' Notwithstanding all that
Paoli,
their favourite General has done, the Corsicans are still indolent, and averse to labour. Every year 800 or 1000 Sardinians and Luccese are employed as artificers and day labourers in the island.
The Corsicans love much to be round a fire. This practice seems peculiar to rude nations. The Indians in North America do it, and the ancient Germans did it. The Scythians too had this custom.
There have been many strange customs in Corsica.
t
ll
us, that after the women were brought to
, the man immediately took care of the children, laying themselves down as if they were sick, and
ndling the infants, so that the mothers had no f
r
her trouble, than to give them suck. So great
to a woman, after she has suffered so much for the
of society, had really something humane in it; though we must smile at such simplicity. We may say, that it has never been paralleled
all the complaisance of modern gallantry. But this equitable custom is no longer in use.
Petrus Cyrnecus
says, that in his time, marriage was so much honoured among the Corsicans, that if any young woman was so poor, that nobody asked her, the neighbours raised a contribution to help her to a husband. Generosity could never be more properly exercised.
Epaminondas
used to exercise his generosity in that way.
There are some very extraordinary customs which still subsist in Corsica. In particular, they have several strange ceremonies at the death of their relations. When a man dies, especially if he has been assassinated, his widow, with all the married women in the village, accompany the corpse to the grave, where, after various howlings, and other expressions of sorrow, the women fall upon the widow, and beat and tear her in a most miserable manner. Having thus satisfied their grief and passion, they lead her back again, covered with blood and bruises, to her own habitation.
The Corsican peasants and soldiers are very fond of baiting cattle with the large mountain dogs. This keeps up a ferocity among them, which totally extinguishes fear. I have seen a Corsican, says
Boswell,
in the very heat of a baiting, run in, drive off the dogs, seize the half frantic animal by the horns, and lead it away. The common people did not seem much given to diversions. I observed some of them in the great hall of the house of Colonna, where I was lodged, amusing themselves with playing at a sort of draughts, in a very curious manner. They drew upon the floor with chalk, a sufficient number of squares, chalking one all over, and leaving one open alternately; and instead of black men and white, they had bits of stone, and bits of wood. It was an admirable burlesque on gaming.
The chief satisfaction of these islanders, when not engaged in war or hunting, seemed to be that of lying at their ease in the open air, recounting tales of the bravery of their countrymen, and singing songs in honour of the Corsicans, and against the Genoese. Even in the night, they would continue this pastime in the open air, unless rain forced them to retire into their houses.
It is remarkable, that no Corsican would, upon any account, consent to be a hangman. Not the greatest criminals, who might have had their lives upon this condition. Even a wretch, who, for a paltry hire, had strangled a woman, would rather submit to death, than do the same action as the executioner of the law.
The hangman of Corsica, says
Boswell,
was a great curiosity. I went up and looked at him, during my residence at Corte; and a more dirty, rueful spectacle, I never beheld. Being held in the utmost detestation, he durst not live like another inhabitant of the island. He was obliged to take refuge in the castle, and there he was kept in a little corner turret, where he had just room for a miserable bed, and a little bit of fire to dress such victuals for himself, as was sufficient to keep him alive; for nobody would have any intercourse with him, but all turned their backs upon him. He seemed sensible of his situation, and held down his head like an abhorred outcast.
It was a long time before they could get a hangman in Corsica, so that the punishment of the gallows was hardly known, all their criminals being shot. At last, this creature whom I saw, who was a Sicilian, came with a message to
Paoli.
The General, who has a wonderful talent for physiognomy, on seeing the man, said immediately to some of his people about him,
Ecco il boia,
behold our hangman. He gave orders to ask the man if he would accept the office, and his answer was, My grandfather was a hangman, my father was a hangman; I have been a hangman myself, and am willing to continue so. He was, therefore, immediately put into office, and the ignominious death dispensed by his hands, hath had more effect, than 20 executions by fire arms.
The following entertaining anecdote, related by
Boswell,
in his tour through the island to visit the famous General
Paoli,
will tend further to shew the great simplicity of ancient manners in this people.
When I had seen every thing about Corte, says this writer, I prepared for my journey to the mountains, that I might be with
Paoli.
The night before I set our, I recollected that I had forgotten to get a passport, which I found to be a necessary precaution. After supper, therefore, the Prior with whom I had taken up my quarters, walked with me to Corte, to the house of the great Chancellor, who ordered the passport to be made out immediately; and while his secretary was writing it, entertained me by reading some of the minutes of the general consulta. When the passport was finished, and ready to have the seal put to it, I was much pleased with a beautiful, simple incident. The Chancellor desired a little boy who was playing in the room by us, to run to his mother, and bring the great seal of the kingdom. I thought myself sitting in the house of a
Cincinnatus.
Next morning, I set out in very good order, having excellent
and clever Corsican guides. The worthy
of the convent, who treated me in the kindest manner whilst I was their guest, would also give me some provisions for my journey; so they put up a gourd of their best wine, and some delicious pomegranates. My Corsican guides appeared so hearty, that I often got down and walked along with them, doing just as I saw them do. When we grew hungry, we threw stones among the thick branches of the chesnut trees, which overshadowed us, and in that manner we brought down a shower of chesnuts, with which we filled our pockets, and went on eating them with great relish; and when this made us thirsty, we lay down by the side of the first brook, put our mouths to the stream, and drank sufficiently. It was just like being, for a little while, one of the
prisca gens mortalium;
the primitive race of men, who run about in the woods, eating acorns, and drinking water.
While I stopped to refresh my mules at a little village, the inhabitants came crowding about me, as an Ambassador going to their General. When they were informed of my country, a strong black fellow said, "English! They are barbarians; they don't believe in the great God?" I replied, "Excuse me, Sir, We do believe in God, and in Jesus Christ too." "Um, said he, and in the Pope?" "No." "And why?" This was a puzzling question in these circumstances; for there was a great audience to the controversy. I thought I would try a method of my own, and very gravely replied, because we are too far off. A very new argument against the universal infallibility of the Pope. It took however; for my opponent mused awhile, and then said, "Too far off! Why Sicily is as far off as England. Yet, in Sicily, they believe in the Pope." "O, said I, we are ten times farther off than Sicily." "Ah!" said he, and seemed quite satisfied. In this manner I got off very well. I question much, whether any of the learned reasons of our protestant divines, would have had so good an effect.
CHAP. III.
Trade, Commerce, and Manufactures.
WE have seen how rich Corsica is in natural productions; so that there is no question, but this island might carry on a pretty extensive commerce in oil, wine, honey, bees-wax, salt, chesnuts, silk, rosin, box-wood, oak, pine, porphyry, marble of various kinds, lead, iron, copper, silver, and coral. At present, commerce is but beginning to flourish among them. They find in their seas, considerable quantities of coral, of all the three kinds, red, white, and black. The Jews of Leghorn, who have established there a coral manufactory, have a sort of exclusive privilege from the Corsicans for this trade; and in return, are very serviceable to the nation, by advancing them money, and supplying them with cannon.
The Corsicans may make plenty of admirable wines, for their grapes are excellent. In some villages, they make a rich sweet wine, much resembling tokay. In others, they make wine very much like Burgundy; and over the whole island, there are wines of different sorts. It is indeed, wonderful, what a difference a little variation of soil or exposure will make in the taste of wine. The juice of Corsican grapes is so generous, that although unskilfully manufactured, it will always please by its natural flavour. The Corsicans have been so harrassed for a number of years, that they have had no leisure to improve themselves in any art or manufacture. It is asserted, however, that the exportation of oil has amounted in one year, to two millions and a half of livres, and that of chesnuts to 25,000 pounds sterling.
Agriculture is as yet in a very imperfect state in Corsica. Their instruments of husbandry are ill made; and they do not make the best use of what they have. Their ploughing is but scratching the surface of the earth, and they hardly know any thing of the advantages of manure, though they can be at no loss for sufficient quantities of it.
The supreme council appoints two or more persons in each province, to superintend the cultivation of lands, and to take the most effectual methods for promoting it; and in particular, to encourage the planting of mulberry trees, it being certain, that Corsica may be made to produce a great deal of silk. As gardening has been almost totally neglected, there is a late ordinance, by which every man who possesses a garden, or other inclosure, is obliged to sow every year, pease, beans, and all sorts of garden stuff, and not less than a pound of each, under the penalty of four livres, to be exacted by the Podestas.
The supreme council also appoints two consuls, to inspect the kind and the price of the various sorts of the merchandise in the island; and to watch over every thing that can tend towards the advancement of commerce.
Provisions are not dear in Corsica. Their prices on a medium, are as follows: A labouring ox, about 80 livres. A cow, from 20 to 30 livres. A horse of the best quality, from 100 to 140 livres. A sheep, about four livres. A partridge, 4 sous. Beef, two sous a pound. Mutton, two thirds of a sou a pound. Fish, from one to two sous a pound. Wine, four sous a flask, of 6 lb. weight.
Oil is sold in barrels, valued from 40 to 50 livres. A barrel contains 20 pints. A pint contains four quarts. Wine is sold in barrels of 12 zuchas. The zucha contains nine large Florence casks. Grain is sold by the bushel. The bushel contains 12 bacine. The bacino weighs about 20 pounds. The sack or bushel sells at 18 livres.
The wages of a tradesman, or of a day labourer, are a livre a day, and victuals and drink. If a tradesman is particularly ingenious in his profession, he has something more. Reapers have no wages in money; but besides their victuals, each gets a bacino of the grain which he cuts down.
The manufactures of Corsica, are as yet very rude. Their wool is exceedingly coarse, and generally black; of this they make a thick, heavy cloth. The pure black is the most valuable; when a little white is mixed with it, the cloth is not so much esteemed, being of a russet grey, or brown dusky colour. They import all their fine cloth; for besides that, there is not a sufficient quantity of wool for the service of the island, the Corsicans have not learned to make any thing else of it, but the coarse cloth above-mentioned.
A good deal of flax grows in Corsica, and no doubt a good deal of it might be raised. But in reality, the Corsicans areas yet so backward, that they hardly make any linen at all, which occasions a very heavy importation.
The Corsicans have plenty of oil for their lamps, which is the light they generally use. They also make wax candles, and a few tallow ones; their cattle not yielding much fat.
There is plenty of leather in the island. Many of the peasants just harden the hides in the air, particularly the wild boar skins, and have their shoes made of them, without being tanned. This they are under no temptation of doing, but that of poverty and laziness; for the art of tanning is very well understood in Corsica, and the materials for it are in such abundance, that a great deal of bark is carried over into Italy. The Corsicans have a method of tanning with the leaves of wild laurel, dried in the sun, and beaten into a powder. This gives a sort of a greenish colour to the leather.
CHAP. IV.
Ancient History and Government; together with Anecdotes relative to the History of the Island; of the famous King Theodore, and of Paoli.
THE earliest accounts we have of Corsica, are to be found in
Herodotus.
He tells us that its first inhabitants were Phenicians; and that eight generations after
Theras
brought a colony to the island from Lacedemon. His account of the first peopling of Corsica, is a very curious piece of ancient history. It afterwards got the name of Cyrnus, from the number of its promontories; and
Isiodorus
relates the manner in which it got the name of Corsica. According to him,
Corsa,
a Ligurian woman, having often observed a bull swim over to the island, and return much fatter, she had the curiosity to follow him in a little vessel, and so discovered the island with all its beauty and fertility. Upon which the Ligurians sent thither a colony; and from
Corsa,
who had made the discovery, they called the island Corsica. This is ludicrous enough; but we may trace what has given rise to so extraordinary a fiction, when we consider, that very probably a people from the opposite coast of Italy, took possession of Corsica.
Its next masters were the Carthiginians.
Aristotle
relates a most extraordinary piece of Punic policy, with respect to Corsica. Finding it was difficult to keep the inhabitants in subjection, they ordered the whole of the vines and olives in the island to be pulled up, and forbad the Corsicans, under pain of death, to sow their fields with any kind of grain, that they might be kept in the most absolute dependence. So early was the cowardly and barbarous policy of a trading republic exercised against this people.
Corsica next passed under the dominion of Rome. It appears, however, that the Corsicans could not bear subjection with patience, for they were continually attempting to get free. Under the Romans, it was made to serve for a place of exile. On the irruption of the barbarous nations, Corsica shared the same sate with the other dominions of the ruined empire. It fell a prey to the Goths, who established there the feudal system, as they did in every other country, to which their arms penetrated.
From this period, the history of Corsica is for many ages a continued series of wars, ravage, and destruction, by a variety of contending powers. About the beginning of the 14th century, the Corsicans were, for the first time, brought under the power of the Genoese; with whom they have since had such struggles for that freedom, which they appear to have at all times attempted to recover.
The Genoese were the worst nation to whom Corsica could have fallen. The Corsicans were a people, impetuous, violent, and brave; who had weathered many a storm, and who could not have been governed, but by a state of which they stood somewhat in awe, and which, by humanity and proper encouragement, might have conciliated their affection. Whereas, the Genoese were a nation of republicans, and it has been always remarked, that the foreign subjects of a little republic, are much worse used, than those of a great kingdom. Accordingly, the Genoese did not treat the Corsicans with that gentleness and confidence, which alone could have secured their attachment and obedience.
They even took a direct contrary course; and although they did not use such desperate means as the Carthiginians, their oppression was heavy; their system was not to render the Corsicans happier and better, but by keeping them in ignorance and oppressed, to prevent their endeavouring to get free.
In this unhappy situation was Corsica. Often did the natives rise in arms; but having no leader to direct them, they was immediately quelled. So apprehensive were the Genoese, that they burnt 120 of the best villages in Corsica, while 4,000 people left the island. What shewed the Genoese policy in the worst light, was, that many of these islanders who had gone over to the continent, made a distinguished figure in most of the European states, both in learning and in arms.
About the year 1550, Corsica revived under the conduct of a great hero, who arose for the deliverance of his country. This was
Sampiero di Bastelica.
He was, however, stopped in his career by the treachery of the Genoese, who had him basely assassinated in the year 1567.
Long despised, plundered, and oppressed, the Corsicans again revived in 1729, when the war commenced, which, with some intervals, continued, till they had finally rescued themselves from the slavery of their inveterate masters, the Genoese.
It is wonderful to see, how great wants are produced by little causes. The rise of the Corsicans, in 1729, was occasioned by a single paolo, a piece worth about five-pence English. A Genoese collector, went to the house of a poor old woman, and demanded this trifling sum, as the money for which she was assessed. Being in extreme penury, she had not wherewithal to satisfy the demand. Upon which, the collector began to abuse her, and to seize some of her furniture. She begged him to have patience, and said, she hoped in a few days, to be be able to pay him. He persisted in his severity, and the poor woman made a great lamentation. Two or three people hearing the noise, entered the house, took the part of the woman, and exclaimed against the barbarity of the collector. He threatened them with punishment, for having hindered him in the execution of his office. This provoked the villagers, and they drove him away with stones. The Genoese sent troops to support their collector, and the Corsicans assembled in large bodies to defend themselves. The tumult encreased. A spark was sufficient to kindle the flame in a people who so often glowed with the enthusiasm of liberty, and in a very short time, the whole island was in motion.
The Corsicans immediately rushed upon the capital, which they took almost without resistance; and they would have been matters of the castle, had they been a little better regulated.
The Genoese at first endeavoured to overawe the Corsicans, by the sole force of the republic; but finding themselves unable, they applied to the Emperor,
Charles
VI. who sent a strong army of Germans there, with the Prince of
Wertemberg
at their head. The Corsicans were not in a condition to resist such a force. They laid down their arms, upon condition that a treaty should be made between them and the Genoese, having the Emperor for guarantee.
This treaty having been broken by the latter, there was a very short suspension of hostilities; and in 1734, the Corsicans rose anew.
The Genoese had paid very dear for their victory in their struggles. It was computed, that it had cost them above 30,000,000 of livres, besides costly presents to the Prince of
Wirtemberg,
and to the other general officers.
CORSICANS
The Marquis
d'Argens,
very pleasantly applies to the Genoese, the French Fable of a Gardener, who complained to a gentleman in the neighbourhood, that a hare came every day into his garden, and eat his cabbages; and begged the gentleman would be so good to drive her out for him. The gentleman comes with a pack of hounds, and half a dozen huntsmen, and does more mischief in five minutes, than the hare could have done in seven years. After a prodigious chace, the hare made her escape through a hole in the wall. Upon which, the Gentleman congratulated the gardener on getting rid of his enemy, and advised him to stop up the hole. So the Genoese, after having expended a great deal more upon foreign auxiliaries, than they could ever derive from Corsica, had the mortification, on the departure of these auxiliaries, to find themselves just as they were.
Whilst the Genoese and the Corsicans were keenly engaged again, and the politicians of Europe forming various conjectures, a most extraordinary circumstance occurred, to the amazement of every one. This was the appearance of the famous King
Theodore,
whose singular history made so much noise. As many inconsistent reports were circulated, with regard to this man, who now lies in this country, the following authentic accounts concerning him, will perhaps not be unacceptable to our readers.
Theodore Baron Newhoff,
in the county of La Marc, in Westphalia, was the personage who aspired to the sovereignty of Corsica. He had his education in the French service. He afterwards went to Spain. But being of a strange, unsettled, projecting disposition, he quitted Spain, and went and travelled into Italy, England, and Holland, always in search of some new adventure. He at last fixed his attention on Corsica, and formed a scheme of making himself king.
He was a man of abilities and address; and after having fully informed himself of every thing relating to the island, he went to Tunis, where he fell upon means to procure some money and arms; and then came to Leghorn, from whence he wrote a letter to the Corsican chiefs, offering considerable advantage to the nation, if they would elect him as their sovereign. This letter was consigned to the Corsican plenipotentiary in Tuscany; and he gave for answer, that if
Theodore
brought the assistance he promised to the Corsicans, they would very willingly make him king.
Upon this, without loss of time, he set sail, and landed in Corsica in spring, 1736. He was a man of very stately appearance, and the Turkish dress he wore, added to the dignity of his mien. He had a few attendants with him. His manners were so engaging, and his offers so plausible, that he was proclaimed King of Corsica, before the Ambassadors dispatches arrived to inform the chiefs of the terms upon which he had agreed. He brought with him about 1000 zechins, besides some arms and ammunition, and made magnificent promises of foreign assistance.
Theodore
assumed every mark of royal dignity. He had his guards, and his officers of state. He conferred titles of honour, and he struck money, both of silver and copper. The silver pieces were few in number, and can hardly now be met with. It was such a curiosity over all Europe, to have King
Theodore's
coins, that the silver pieces were sold at four zechins each; and when the genuine ones were exhausted, imitations of them were made at Naples, and like the imitations of antiques, were bought up at a high price, and carefully preservedin the cabinets of the virtuosi.
Theodore
immediately blocked up the Genoese fortified towns; and he used to be sometimes at one siege, and sometimes at another, standing with a telescope in his hand, as if he spied the assistance which he said he expected. He used also the artifice of making large packets be continually brought to him from the continent, which he gave out to be from the different sovereigns of Europe, acknowledging his authority, and promising to befriend him.
The Genoese were not a little confounded with this unexpected adventure. They published a violent manifesto against
Theodore,
treating him with great contempt, but at the same time shewing, they were alarmed at his appearance.
Theodore
replied in a manifesto, with all the calmness and dignity of a monarch; expressed his indifference as to the injurious treatment of the republic, and appeared firm in the hopes of victory.
After having been about eight months in Corsica,
Theodore
perceived that the people began to cool in their affections towards him, and did not act with the same resolution as before. He therefore wisely determined to leave them for a little, and try his fortune again upon the continent. He accordingly, after laying down a plan of administration to be observed in his absence, went to Holland, and there he was successful enough to get credit to a great extent, from several rich merchants, particularly jews, who trusted him with cannon and other warlike stores, to a great value, under the charge of a supercargo. With these he returned to Corsica, in 1739; and on his arrival, put to death his supercargo, that he might not have any trouble from demands being made upon him.
By this time, the French had become so powerful in the island, that although
Theodore
threw in his supply of warlike stores, he did not incline to venture his person, the Genoese having set a high price upon his head. He therefore chose to relinquish his throne, and give up his views of ambition, for safety, having furnished a remarkable example how far a daring and desperate spirit may go. Had he had a little more prudence, and better fortune,
Theodore
and his posterity, might have worn the crown of Corsica, upon the generous title of having delivered the island from oppression.
It has been often said, that he was secretly supported by some of the European powers. But it does not appear, there was any foundation for the conjecture. It is, indeed, something singular, to find a private gentleman, embarking in his own bottom, in an enterprize of such a nature. But the truth is,
Theodore
was a most singular man, and had been so beaten about by change of fortune, that he had lost the common sentiments of mankind, and viewed things as one who is mad, or drunk, or in a high fever. He had nothing to lose, and a great deal to win. His scheme was to amuse the Corsicans with the hopes of foreign aid; and by the force of hope, to carry them forward. This might have succeeded, in which case, he could very easily have said, that the foreign aid would have come, had there been occasion for it; but they had behaved with such spirit, as to require no help. And had he been fortunate, it is probable, some of the European powers might have in reality stood by him.
The Corsicans, who had most faith in his fine speeches, still extol him to the skies; others, who looked upon him as an imposter, and never joined heartily in his measures, represent him as a kind of
Wat Tyler,
king of a rabble; but the most knowing and judicious, consider him in the moderate light in which he has been now represented, and own he was of great service in reviving the spirit of the nation; which, after a good many years of constant war, was beginning to droop.
They indeed are sensible, that his wretched fate has thrown a sort of ridicule on the nation, since their king was confined in a goal at London, which was actually the case with poor
Theodore;
who, who, after experiencing the most extraordinary vicissitudes of fortune, chose to end his days in our island of liberty; but was reduced to the wretched state of a prisoner for debt.
Horace Walpole,
the present Earl of Orford, generously exerted himself for
Theodore.
He wrote a paper in the world, with great elegance and humour, soliciting a contribution for the monarch in distress, to be paid to Mr.
Robert Dodsley,
bookseller, as Lord High Treasurer. This brought him a very handsome sum. He was allowed to get out of prison. The Earl of Orford has the original deed, by which
Theodore
made over the kingdom of Corsica, in security to his creditors. He has also the great seal of the kingdom. He died very soon after he got out of prison, and was buried in St. Anne's church-yard, Westminster; where a simple, unadorned monument is erected to him, with the following inscription:
"Near this place is interred Theodore, King of Corsica, who died in this parish, December
11, 1756,
immediately after leaving the King's Bench prison, by the benefit of the act of insolvency; in consequence of which, he registered his kingdom of Corsica, for the use of his creditors.
Death to one common level all things brings,
Heroes, and beggars, galley-slaves, and kings,
But
Theodore
this lesson learnt ere dead,
Fate poured its lessons o'er his living head,
Bestowed a kingdom, but denied him bread.
We have seen that
Theodore
durst not land. The succours he left were not of much avail. Such unprecedented and terrible slaughter as now took place, with the dread of still greater vengeance, from so formidable a nation as France, obliged the Corsicans to lay down their arms. In this manner was Corsica totally vanquished by France, of which the Genoese were as proud, as if it had been their own atchievement.
France being engaged with more important objects than Corsica, thought proper to recal her troops from that island. The French knew the Corsicans too well, to believe that they would submit to Genoa, when left to themselves. The event happened accordingly, for the French were hardly gone, before the Corsicans were again as much in motion as ever. From having been long depressed, like a bow recovering its elasticity, they rose with renewed vigour. Man, woman, and child, may be said to have engaged; for very young boys took the field; and even some of the women, like those of Sparta, shewed their valour in battle.
Gaffori
and
Matra
now obtained the government of the island, under the title of Protectors of the Kingdoms.
Gaffori
was a man of distinguished talents. His eloquence was most remarkable. He heard once, that a band of assassins was coming against him. He went out and met them with a serene dignity which astonished them. He begged they would only hear him a little; and he gave them so pathetic a picture of the distresses of Corsica, and roused their spirits to such a degree against those who caused the oppression, that the assassins threw themselves at his feet, intreated his forgiveness, and instantly joined his banners.
Soon after this, the celebrated
Paschal Paoli
was elected general of the kingdom. He was the son of one of their old chiefs. He had been educated with great care by his father, who formed his taste for letters, and inspired him with every worthy and noble sentiment. He was born in Corsica, but taken by his father to Naples, during the troubles, where he got a commission in that service, and was much about court.
Here he lived 12 or 13 years, cultivating the great powers with which nature had endowed him, and laying the foundation of those grand designs, which he had early formed for the deliverance of his country. His reputation became so great among the Corsicans, that he received the strongest invitations to come over and take the command. He embarked in the glorious enterprize, stimulated by generous ambition, and undismayed by a consideration of the dangers, cares and uncertainty he was about to encounter.
Paoli
no sooner appeared on the island, than he attracted the attention of every body. His carriage and deportment prejudiced them in his favour, and his superior judgment and patriotism, displayed with all the force of eloquence, charmed their understandings.
All ranks now exerted themselves, in providing what was necessary for carrying on the war with spirit; whereby, in a short time, the Genoese were driven to the remotest corners of the island.
Paoli
had well nigh finished his great scheme of freeing every part of the island from the Genoese, when a treaty was concluded between France and the republic, by which the former engaged to send six battallions of troops, to garrison the fortified towns in Corsica, for the space of four years.
When this treaty was first known in Europe, every noble heart was afflicted; for every one believed, that France was determined to carry fire and sword into Corsica, and blast the hopes of the brave islanders. But it turned out to be a prudent and politic scheme on the part of France. She owed the Genoese some millions of livres. Her finances were not such as made it very convenient for her to pay. The French ministers, who were never at a loss to conclude an advantageous treaty for their monarch, told the Genoese, 'We cannot yet let you have your money. But we will send you six battallions of auxiliaries to Corsica, and let that be a sinking fund for the discharge of our debt.' The Genoese, who recalled with barbarous satisfaction, what France had formerly done against the Corsicans, were extremely pleased with the scheme.
The French, however, took care to engage to act only on the defensive, and to fix the treaty for four years, that they might be sure of having time to sink their debt. The French general was an officer of temper and experience; and no doubt, had his instructions to conduct himself mildly towards the Corsicans. All his duty was to take care that things should not become worse for Genoa, but that she should still retain the garrison towns on the coast.
The Corsicans conducted themselves on this occasion, with the greatest propriety. A general council was held, and determinations published, from which it appears, that they shewed no distrust of the French, who, they trusted, would not begin hostilities against them. The warlike operations of Corsica, were now suspended; and in a short time after, all right and title to the sovereignty of the island was ceded by the Genoese to the French, under whose protection, the Corsicans were; but in the troubles of France, it was taken by the English, and the Corsican people made a formal surrender of the island to the King of England.
The government of Corsica exhibits a compleat and well ordered democracy, from the lowest magistrate, up to the supreme council.
Every village elects by majority of votes, a Podesta, and other two magistrates, who have the respectable name of Fathers of the Community. These magistrates are chosen annually. They may be continued in office for several years, at the will of the community; but there must be a new election every year. The Podesta, by himself, may determine causes to the value of ten livres; and united with the
Padri del commune,
or Fathers of the Country, may finally determine causes to the value of 50 livres. The Podesta is the representative of the government, and to him are addressed all the orders of the supreme council. The Padri del commune superintend the economy and police of the village, call the people together, and consult with them on every thing that concerns their interest. Sometimes the people choose two Podestas and one Padri del commune, and sometimes more, and sometimes fewer counsellors. These irregularities are permitted to humour the caprice of different villages in an infant state, and are of no consequence; for the same degree of power remains to each office, whether it be held by a lesser, or a greater number; as in the states of Holland, those who send two or three representatives, have but an equal voice with those who send only one.
Once a year, the inhabitants of each village assemble themselves, and choose a Procurator, to represent them in the general consulta, or parliament of the nation, which is held annually in the month of May, at the City of Corte. This procurator is elected by a majority of voices. Each of them have from their community, a livre a day, to bear his charges from the time of his sitting out, till his return home.
Sometimes the procurators of all the villages contained in the same pieve, choose from among themselves one, who goes as representative from the pieve, which saves some expence to the villages. But this is abuse, and when matters of any consequence are deliberating, it renders the number of those who are to consult, too small. A little expence should be despised, in comparison of having a voice in making the laws, and settling the most serious concerns of the country; and the greater the number of voices, the more does the assembly approach to the idea of a Roman Comitia.
The general consulta, is indeed a numerous assembly; for besides the ordinary procurators, it is usual to call in those who have been formerly members of the supreme council, and several of those who have lost their fathers or near relations in the service of their country, that the blood of heroes may be distinguished by public honours.
When all the procurators are assembled at Corte, they proceed to the election of the president and orator of the general consulta. The president governs during the sitting of the assembly. The orator reads the different papers subjected to deliberation. Those from the people, are addressed to the orator. If a proposition from the government, or supreme council of state, answering to our privy council, is approved by a majority of voices, it is immediately passed into a law. But a proposition from the people, though approved of, may be suspended by the government, without assigning their reasons; which, however, they are strictly obliged to do the next general consulta.
Each province, of which, as we have already said, there are nine, appoints its representative in the supreme council for the ensuing year; and one of these is elected into the office of great Chancellor. The supreme council of the time, being with the general of the kingdom, form the executive government of the whole nation; the general consulta devolving upon them that high commission.
The general holds his office for life. He is perpetual president of the supreme council of nine. He votes in all questions; and in case of an equality, he has a casting vote. He is absolute commander of the troops or militia of the island. His office much resembles that of Stadtholder in Holland.
In the general consulta, are also chosen some persons of high credit and respect, as syndicatori. These make a tour through the different provinces, as our judges in England go the circuits. They hear complaints against the different magistrates; and if any of them have transgressed their duty, they are properly censured. These syndicators are extremely beneficial. The general himself is almost always one of them. They save poor people the trouble and expence of going to Corte to lay their grievances before the supreme council. They examine into every thing concerning the provinces, reconcile the people to the wholesome severity of law, encourage industry, and diffuse a spirit of order and civilization through the island.
CHAP. V.
Military, Learning, Language, and Religion.
THE warlike force of Corsica, principally consists in a bold and resolute militia: every Corsican has a musket put into his hand, as soon as he is able to carry it; and as there is a constant emulation in shooting, they become excellent marksmen, and will hit with a single bullet, a very small mark, at a very great distance.
There is in every village, a
Capitano d'arme;
and in every pieve, a
Commissario d'arme,
who has the command over all the Capitani d'arme in his district. These officers are chosen by the general, with the approbation of the people. They are ever ready to receive his orders, and to call out such a number of men, as he shall at any time require for the public service.
There are in Corsica, but 500 soldiers who have pay; 300 for a guard to the general, and 200 to furnish guards for the magistrates of the several provinces, and to garrison a few small sorts at particular places in the island.
The state of learning in Corsica, may well be imagined at a low ebb, since it was the determined purpose of Genoa, to keep the inhabitants of this island in the grossest ignorance; and the confusions and distresses of war, have left them no leisure to attend to any kind of study. That laws are silent amidst the din of arms, is an old observation; and it may be justly applied to the muses, whom war frightens away from every country. A university was established at Corte, in the year 1764, and a manifesto published, recalling to the people of Corsica, the barbarous policy of Genoa, in keeping them in ignorance; and informing them of the establishment, which the parental care of the government had formed for their instruction.
The professors in the university of Corte, are mostly fathers of different religious orders. They are indefatigable in their labours, and the youth of Corsica discover the same keenness of spirit in their studies, which characterises them in arms. There are at Corte, some pretty good halls, where the professors give their lectures. But it cannot be expected, that they should as yet have any thing like the regular building of a college. The students are boarded in the town.
Under the head of learning, it must be observed, that there is a printing house at Corte, and a bookseller's shop. Here are printed, however, nothing more than the public manifestoes, calendars of feast days, and little practical devotional pieces, as also the Corsican gazette, which is published by authority, from time to time, just as news are collected; for it contains nothing but the news of the island. It admits no foreign intelligence, nor private anecdotes; so that there will sometimes be an interval of three months, during which, no newspapers are published.
There are in Corsica, several treatises of political controversy, said in the title, to be printed at Corte, but they are in reality, printed at Lucca, or Leghorn. In some of these treatises, which are pretty numerous, the authors, with much ease and thought, labour to prove to a demonstration, that the Corsicans must be free. Their writings are a good deal in the stile of the profound tracts, for and against the hereditary and indefeasible right of kings, with which all the libraries in this country were filled in the last age. Authorities are heaped upon authorities, to establish the plainnest propositions; and as the poet says, they 'quote the Stagyrite, to prove that smoak ascends, and snow is white.'
The language of the Corsicans, is remarkable good Italian, tinctured a little with some remains of the dialects of the barbarous nations, and with a few Genoese corruptions, but much purer than in many of the Italian states. Their pronunciation, however, is somewhat coarse.
The religion of Corsica, is the Roman Catholic faith, in which these islanders are very zealous. Perhaps they have a degree of superstition, which is the best extreme. No nation can prosper without piety; for when that fails, public spirit, and every noble sentiment will decay. The doctrine of looking up to an All-ruling Providence, and that of a future state of rewards and punishments, rendered the Roman people virtuous and great. In proportion as these doctrines were weakened by the false philosophy of
Epicurus,
the minds of the Romans were impoverished, and their manly patriotism was succeeded by effeminate selfishness, which quickly brought them to contempt and ruin.
Although firmly attached to their religion, as the revelation sent from God, the Corsicans preserve, in ecclesiastical matters, the same spirit of boldness and freedom, for which they are distinguished in civil affairs. They are sworn enemies to the temporal power of the church.
The Corsican bishops, who are five in number, and suffragans of the archbishop of Pisa, were warmly attached to Genoa, during their last commotions with that state; for on Genoa they depended for promotion. They thought fit to preach up the most slavish doctrines of submission, and stigmatized the patriots as rebels. Government desired that they might reside in the territories of the nation, and promised them a guard to protect them from any insult. But the bishops knew well, that in the territories of the nation, they could not preach the doctrines of tyranny, and therefore refused to reside there. Upon which, the government sequestered their revenues, and prohibited the patriots from having any intercourse with the bishops; with which they most readily complied.
The clergy of Corsica, in general, are not as yet very learned; as the barbarous policy of Genoa, to keep the island in ignorance, and the many years of confusion and war, have prevented the cultivation of letters. There are, however, here and there some priests, who have had an education upon the continent, and are very well instructed, and they are all very pious, and of irreproachable morals.
There are in Corsica, 65 convents of Mendicant friars; viz. 34 of observants, 14 of reformed of the order of S.
Francis,
and 17 of capuchins. Every one of these convents, has only a wood for retired walks, a garden, and a small vineyard. They depend altogether on the charity of the people. There are two colleges of Jesuits, two convents of Dominicans, five of Servites, and one of Missionaries; all of whom have very good possessions. There are also some lands belonging to other religious orders, particularly to the Carthusians of Pisa, the severe sanctity of whom, must secure them the veneration of every body, and preserve their rights inviolated, even in times of the greatest distraction.
It would be expected, that in this island, the monasteries for women, should bear some proportion to the convents for men; yet, in fact, there is not a single nunnery in all Corsica. To account for this, it must be considered, that the monastic institution has been frequently perverted to secular purposes, so that the nobility in catholic countries, who are desirous to aggrandize their families, make their daughters take the veil, that their portions may be saved to the eldest son. The Genoese, who wanted to keep the Corsicans in continual subjection, devised every method to prevent any of the nobles in the island, from becoming considerable. They therefore prohibited manufactories, in order to cut them off from one method of growing richer. Friars, they rather encouraged, in order to lessen population, and to leave upon families a number of unmarried women, than which nothing can be a greater burden, as is sadly experienced in protestant countries.
Convents should be laid under such restrictions, that what is intended as a solemn, religious institution, may not become so common as to lose its effect, and be reckoned a profession for the dull or the indolent.
END OF CORSICA.
Map
of
SPAIN,
and
PORTUGAL.
A DESCRIPTION OF SPAIN, FROM SWINBURNE, TOWNSHEND, TWISS, AND OTHERS.
CHAP. I.
General History, Situation, Climate, and Productions, Mountains, Rivers, &c.
SPAIN is bounded on the north by the Pyrenees, which separate it from France; on the east by the Mediterranean, on the south by the Streights of Gibraltar, and on the west, by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. It is upwards of 260 leagues in length, from the south-west, to the north-east, and 170 leagues in breadth.
Spain, from its position, climate, and fertility, has been the victim of hostile nations. The Phenicians are the first, of which we find traces in history. This people, to whom commerce taught philosophy, landed upon the coasts of Spain, and their first settlement, was, it is said, at Cadiz. The Carthaginians, not less desirous of profit and plunder, thought proper to dispute with them a soil, less scorched, and more fertile, than that of Africa; they also founded colonies, but not without having first shed much blood. The ancient inhabitants having but few other wants than those of nature, and not discovering their future tyrants in the new colonists, amused themselves with hunting, fishing, and peacefully drinking the milk of their flocks. Possessing but little knowledge of commerce and navigation, they left the care and profits of these, and with them all disputes, to the Phenicians and Carthaginians.
But the wars between these people were not of long duration, because commerce loves tranquillity, and endeavours to repel violence, without aiming at military fame. All their quarrels would have been terminated by a solid pence, had Rome seen without envy the aggrandizement and success of her rival. The Romans took the first opportunity of driving the Carthaginians from Spain. This kingdom became the theatre of two of the most famous wars of antiquity. By the first, which lasted 24 years, Rome obliged Carthage to cede to her a part of her conquests; and by the second, which continued but for 17 years, Carthage was entirely stripped of her possessions and her power.
The Phenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians, had only gone, as it may be said, to Spain. The Romans established themselves there, and became absolate masters of the kingdom. Under them, Spain was divided into Baetica, Lusitania, and Tarraconensis. The first comprehended Grenada, Upper and Lower Andalusia, and a part of New Castile. Lusitania extended from the river Guadiana to the Douro; and Tarraconensis as extensive as the other two divisions, comprehended the east of the kingdom. The ancients have left very animated accounts of this monarchy.
Strabo
is the author who describes it with the greatest truth: he says, it is a mountainous and difficult country, and that the mountains, by which it is divided, are for the most part barren: he does justice, however, to the fertility of Andalusia. All his third book is peculiarly interesting for such persons as desire to have a perfect knowledge of that part of Europe.
The Romans possessed this rich and extensive peninsula, about 600 years. Towards the fifth century, a swarm of barbarians fell upon the fine provinces of the Roman empire. The Goths in part, invaded and conquered Spain. They reigned there 130 years.
Roderic
was the last of their kings; the famous battle of Xerxes, in 712, put the Moors in possession of the greatest and finest part of Spain. The history of
Roderic
is enveloped in an infinity of fables. He is said to have entered a grotto at Toledo, where he found a sheet, upon which was painted a man of gigantic stature, in an African habit, and holding an inscription, signifying that Spain, should one day be subjugated by such a race of men. Another fable, repeated by several historians, is, that
Roderic
having ill treated
Cara,
a young and beautiful lady of his court, and likewise treated her father, Count
Julian,
with great indignity, who demanded satisfaction for her injured honor, the latter invited the Moors into Spain, to be revenged on his sovereign.
These becoming quiet possessors of their rapid and brilliant conquests, the dawn of the resplendent reigns of the sovereigns of Cordova, Seville, and Granada began to appear. The court of Abdalrahman, was the centre of arts, sciences, pleasures, and gallantry. Tournaments, the image of war, in which love and address were substituted for valour and courage, continued for several centuries, the amusements of a rich and fortunate people. The women were constantly present at games, the only end of which was to please them, and excited a tender emulation. The voluptuous Arabs aimed at splendid atchievements, to render themselves more worthy of their mistresses. To them are we indebted for plaintive romance, in which seductive love assumes the air of melancholy, the better to interest our affections: poetry and music were favorite arts with the Moors. The number of academies and universities increased in Cordova and Granada; even women gave public lectures on poetry and philosophy; and literary resources abounded in proportion to the progress of science. At that time, there were 70 academies public in Spain. Toledo, Seville, Granada, and Cordova, which now present nothing but ruins and depopulation, certainly contained from three to 400,000 inhabitants. Granada is the only place in which vestiges of the splendid reign of the Moors are to be found. Nothing, however, can be more confused, than the Dynasties of the Moors or Arabs who reigned in Spain. That of the Christian monarchs, who disputed with them the kingdom, and taking advantage of their divisions, drove them out, is not less so. Long accustomed to conquer the Moors, thus divided, they had, within little more than a century, taken from them Toledo, Cordova, Seville, and Murcia. Granada still flourished, and was become their only strong hold, when Castille and Arragon united in the persons of
Ferdinand
and
Isabella,
formed too great a power to be resisted by a kingdom enfeebled by intestine commotions. Granada was reduced in 1492, after a siege of two years. The Moors had reigned in Spain eight centuries, and were totally ruined by this defeat: persecuted, despoiled, burned, or converted, and baptized by thousands, they were at length driven from the kingdom, in the reign of
Philip
III. about the 17th century.
Spain is at present divided into 14 provinces, which are Navarre, Biscay, and the Asturias to the north; to the west, are Galicia and Estramadura; to the south, Upper and Lower Andalusia, and the kingdom of Murcia; to the east, that of Valencia, Arragon, and Catalonia; and in the middle of the monarchy, the kingdom of Leon, and the two Castiles.
As the character, customs, and manners of the inhabitants of these provinces, which were formerly so many distinct kingdoms, or independent sovereignties, are in many of them very different, we shall treat of the principal ones apart.
But first, it will be proper to observe, that this division of Spain into kingdoms and provinces, as described in maps and geographical treatises, has scarcely any place in fact. The government knows but one division, the province of the crown of Castile, and those of the crown of Arragon. The two parts of the monarchy differ from each other, with respect to the administration, form and collection of taxes; a distinction, which had its origin at the time when Castile and Arragon were united by the marriage of
Isabella,
and
Ferdinand
the Catholic, and which, since that time, has undergone but few alterations. The crown of Arragon, possessed only Arragon, Catalonia, and the kingdom of Valencia, besides some islands in the Mediterranean. The crown of Castile possessed the rest of the Spanish monarchy.
The air in most of the provinces, is pure and dry, but in June, July, and August, the days are insufferably hot, especially in the middle of the country; in the night, a traveller shivers with cold. Towards the north, and in the mountainous parts of the kingdom, the air is cooler than towards the south, and near the sea contracts a considerable moisture. It seldom rains, and the winter frosts are never such as to bind up the ground. Want of temperature in the heat and coolness of the air, is the cause that seed lies a long time in the ground, before it shoots up. The country in general, labours under a great scarcity of corn, which is owing in a great measure to the neglect of agriculture; for though the soil is in places extremely dry, and the growth of grain and other fruits, very much obstructed in the day by the excessive heats, and in the night, by intense cold; yet it appears from ancient geographers and historians, that Spain formerly produced great plenty of corn, so that the present scarcity of that commodity, must proceed from the neglect of tillage. On the other hand, the most delicious fruits are to be met with in great abundance, such as pears, peaches, olives, figs, grapes, almonds, chesnuts, lemons, oranges, and pomegranates. It produces also very good saffron. The Spanish wines, particularly sack, are greedily bought up by foreign nations. The value of the wine and grapes annually exported from the country round Malaga, alone amounts to one million and an half of piastres.
The grapes or raisins, says
Twiss,
are of two sorts; those which are called sun raisins, are thus made; when the grapes are almost ripe, the stalk is cut half through, so that the sap may not penetrate farther, but yet that the bunch of grapes may remain suspended by the stalk. The sun, by darting on them, candies them, and when they are dry, they are packed up in boxes. The second sort is made after the following manner: when the vines are pruned, the tendrils are preserved till the time of vintage; a great fire is then made, wherein those tendrils are burnt, and in the lye made from their ashes, the newly gathered grapes are dipt, after which, they are exposed to the sun to dry, which renders them fit for use.
The Indian fig too, is very common in the eastern and southern parts of Spain, and although this shrub be originally from the Indies, it grows every where without cultivation. Its flower is almost the size of a common carnation: the fruit which succeeds the flower, resembles the common fig; it stains with red the urine of such as eat of it. It was by chance discovered in England, that the bones of a pig, kept in the house of a dyer, and which had been fed with madder, were stained with red. The experiment was repeated and confirmed by the academy of sciences at Paris.
The great palm tree grows in all the southern provinces of Spain, but is found in the greatest abundance in the kingdom of Valencia, in the environs of the Elche, when the plain is covered with them as far as the eye can reach. It is said, there are upwards of 50,000 trees, two thirds of which, are at least 120 feet high, and form a magnificent forest. The dates they produce, hang in clusters of from 15 to 25 pounds weight at the top of the tree.
Andalusia abounds with olive trees; those of Lucena and the environ, produce a round little olive of a good quality for making of oil. The olives of Seville are as large as a pigeons egg, and are excellent for preserving.
Several parts of the country also produce rice and sugar canes. Spain enjoys likewise great plenty of exquisite honey, and silk in abundance. Salt is procured in such abundance, that there are considerable quantities exported. A great deal of sea-salt is made on the coasts, and in the island of Majorca, where the sun serves instead of fire. In this country, are to be seen innumerable flocks of very fine sheep, part of which, during winter, feed in the plains, and in the summer, are driven up again in the mountains. The number of shepherds in Spain, are computed to be 40,000. The wool most in esteem, is that of Old Castile, though the Spanish wool in general, is very fine and valuable. Andalusia and Asturia are particularly famous for their horses. There are also great numbers of mules; but few horned cattle. From Andalusia are brought the wild bulls for the bull-fights.
The maritime parts abound in fish, among other kinds in tunny, sturgeon, salmon, lampreys, haddock, &c. But for want of improving these advantages, Spain annually purchases stock and salt fish- to the amount of three million of piastres.
Tunny, says
Twiss,
are caught in great abundance near Conil, on the Andalusian coast. These fish are from 7 to 10 feet in length, and weigh about an hundred and an half. The Duke of Medina Sidonia is proprietor of this fishery, which brings him in annually upwards of 10,000l. The fish is eaten fresh and salted; it is exported to Italy, where it serves for food to the equipage of the gallies which cruise in the Mediterranean; this fish is very firm and nourishing, and much resembles veal.
Among the many mountains in Spain the Pyrenees are the most remarkable. These separate Spain from France, and from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic make a length of near 200 English miles, being in their greatest breadth not less than 90. Over these Pyrenean mountains there are scarce five passages from Spain into France, and these very narrow. The very vallies between these mountains are covered with thick and lofty woods. Mount Idubada, is a chain of mountains extending from the Pyrenees to Tortosa. A chain of these mountains separates the kingdom of Granada, and extends to the streights of Gibraltar, where the celebrated mountain, anciently called Mount Calpe, stands opposite to those of Ceuta in Africa.
These mountains yield great quantities of timber for shipping. According to ancient writers the mountains of Spain are very rich in gold and silver, but the Spaniards prefer importing these metals from America to searching for them in their own country; but their iron mines are worked with great industry and skill. Spain wants not also other minerals, such as lead, tin, cinnabar, alum, quick-silver, vitriol, copperas, lapis calaminaris, and likewise crystal, diamonds, amethysts, and other gems.
This peninsula is watered by many very considerable rivers; these are upwards of 150 in number; but the most distinguished by their extent, depth, and breadth; in a word, those which in their course swallow up the others, and afterwards empty their waters into the sea, are the Elmo, the Guadalquiver, the Tagus, the Guadiana, the Douro, the Guadalaviar, and the Segura. In giving a description of each province we shall have occasion to speak of the rivers by which they are watered, and to fix the place of their source, and that where they disembogue into the ocean.
Having now given a general view of the climate, productions, and face of the country at large, we shall begin to treat of the different provinces beginning with Catalonia, which at the time of the union was comprehended under the kingdom of Arragon.
CHAP. II.
Province of Catalonia.
THIS province is about 20 leagues in length from east to west, and from 40 to 48 in breadth. It derives its name from that of the Goths and Alans, united in the word Gothalonia, easily changed into Catalonia. It is bounded on the north by the Pyrenees, to the east and south by the Mediterranean, and to the west by the kingdom of Valencia, and by part of that of Arragon. It was formerly larger than at present, but France has at different times curtailed it of the counties of Roussillon and Conflans, with a good part of Cardagne, and long since of Foix. This fine country is watered by several rivers, some of which intermix, whilst others discharge themselves separately into the sea.
The air of Catalonia is healthy, and the climate upon the coast temperate; but the northern part is cold, on account of the mountains. These are numerous in this province, but they are not so barren as those in other parts of the kingdom; the mountains of Catalonia are covered with wood and verdure. The fine and well cultivated plains of Tarragona, Cardagna, Vic and Urgel, produce abundance of corn, wine and vegetables of every kind.
The two wonders of Catalonia are Mountserrat and the mountain near Candona, called the salt-mountain. These equally attract the attention of the devotee and the naturalist. Nothing can be more picturesque than Montserrat; it is so lofty that from the top the neighbouring mountains appear to be sunk to a level with the plain. It is composed of steep rocks which at a distance seem indented, whence it is said it receives the name
Montserrat,
from the Latin word
Serras,
a saw. It is impossible to describe the beauty, richness, and variety of the landscapes discovered from the most elevated point. They fatigue the eye, and must undoubtedly humble every thinking man; it is sufficient to observe that the islands of Majorca and Minorca, which are at the distance of 60 leagues, are discovered from this elevation.
The monastery, in which 60 monks live according to the rule of St.
Benedict,
is at the bottom of a steep rock. It was there St.
Ignatius
devoted himself to penitence, and formed the idea of founding the celebrated society of
Jesus
in 1522, an anecdote but little known.
The most interesting part of the mountain to a foreigner is the desert in which are several hermitages that are excellent asylums for true philosophy and contemplation. Each of these solitary retreats, which at a distance seem destitute of every thing, has a chapel, a cell, or wall in the rock, and a little garden. The hermits who inhabit them are for the most part persons of fortune and family, disgusted with the world, who have retired thither to devote themselves to meditation and silence.
People of every condition are continually going from all parts of the catholic world, but more particularly from the several provinces in Spain, to visit them, as well as the monastery which is reported to contain as great if not a greater treasure than that of Loretto. The monks shew great hospitality to every one who goes there, having a large income for the purpose. It is however customary for persons of fortune who visit them to make some return in money to the monks for their entertainment; the poor only are permitted to live there gratis during three days.
The other great natural curiosity, the mountain of Cardona, is an inexhaustible quarry of salt. This mineral is found there of almost every colour, so that when shone upon by the rays of the sun, the mountains resemble those of diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, which we read of in the fanciful description of fairy land. Vases, urns, and many valuable productions are made from this salt; imitations of every kind of preserved fruit are so perfectly wrought in it, that the eye aids the hand to deceive; there is no form that cannot be given to the salt, which is easily cut, though it has sufficient solidity, but productions which can receive no injury from the hand of time would quickly be dissolved in water. The principal colours of the salt are orange, violet, green, and blue, one of the particularities, and not the least important of this mountain, is, that it is in part covered with shrubs and plants: the top is shaded by a forest of pines, and the environs produce excellent wine.
With respect to the general fair of this province, all through Catalonia, says
Townsend,
we admire at every step the industry of the inhabitants, who working early and late give fertility to a soil which naturally, except for vines, is most improductive; but when we come to Mataro, a large town on the sea-coast, we are perfectly enchanted. The farms are so many gardens divided every where into beds of about four feet wide, with a channel for the passage of the water to each bed. Every farm has its noria, a species of chain pump, which from its extreme simplity, seems to have been the invention of the most remote antiquity. By means of this machine they every morning draw a sufficient quantity of water from the well for the service of the day, and in the evening distribute it to every quarter according to the nature of their crops. The reservoirs into which they raise the water, are about 20, 30, or even 40 feet square, and three feet high, above the surface of the ground, with a stone cope on the wall declining to the water, for the women to wash and beat their clothes upon. The soil is so light, being nothing but sand from the decomposition of the granate, that they plough with two oxen, or one horse, or even with a mule; yet by the assistance of the water it is made fertile, and produces on the same spot of ground, corn, vine, oranges, and olives.
CHAP. III.
Of the Cities, &c.
THE principal city in this province is Barcelona, and this city, says
Peyron,
is the only one in Spain, which at a distance announces its grandeur and population. The traveller when half a league from Madrid would scarcely suspect he was approaching a great city, much less the capital of the kingdom, were it not for the high and numerous steeples which seem to rise from the midst of a barren soil, whereas in the environs of Barcelona an immense number of country houses, carriages, and passengers prepare us for a rich and commercial city.
The building of Barcelona, according to historians, was about 230 years prior to the christian Aera, and 300 subsequent to the first establishment of the Carthaginians in Spain. It is said to have been called Barkino by its founder, in honour of his family, and to have derived from the Jews the commercial spirit which it has constantly retained.
It was early delivered from the dominion of the Moors, and raised into a county, paying homage to the kings of France, till they, unable to protect it, resigned their claims, leaving the citizens to their own exertions for the vindication of their freedom. Towards the close of the 12th century, it was annexed by the marriage of its Count to the crown of Arragon; and at a subsequent period, by the union of
Ferdinand
and
Isabella,
it became a part of the Spanish monarchy.
Whilst the succession was disputed in 1700, between the two houses of Austria and Bourbon, on the death of
Charles
II. of Spain, this city was of too much importance to the two contending parties, to remain long in the quiet possession of either. The French were masters of the city, when the Earl of
Peterborough
arrived upon the coast with his little army, a force too inconsiderable to attempt a siege with any prospect of success. But as this gallant officer had that which supplies the want of more numerous armies, an imagination fertile in resources, his friends never despaired of success, till they saw him re-embark his troops and prepare for sailing. The moment of despair to them, was to the besieged, the revival of their confidence, and the signal of futurity. He sailed, but in the night disembarked his troops, and before morning, got possession of Monjuich. After a few days more, he was master of the city.
Tarragon, Tortosa, and Lerida, followed the example of the capital, and declared for
Charles.
Wherever the Earl of
Peterborough
carried his arms, victory declared for him. It was sufficient to shew himself, and every city offered him its keys. When he was superceded, a series of misfortunes too well known, hastened the fall of the Arch-Duke's dominions; and the citizens of Barcelona, after an obstinate resistance, opening their gates to
Philip,
submitted, though reluctantly, to bear the yoke.
A spacious and airy walk round the walls, with the inclosed gardens, contributes towards making Barcelona one of the most delightful cities in the world. No one who has been there in the spring, will be ever weary in expatiating on the pleasures he enjoyed.
This city, says
Swinburne,
is situated in a sweet spot; the air equal in purity, and much excels in mildness the boasted climate of Montpellier. Except in the dog days, there are green pease all the year round. The situation is beautiful, the appearance both from land and water highly picturesque. A great extent of fruitful plains bounded by an amphitheatre of hills, backs it on the west side; the mountain of Montjuich defends it on the south from the unwholesome winds that blow over the marshes at the mouth of the Llobregat; to the northward the coast projecting into the sea forms a noble bay; and it has the Mediterranean to close the prospect of the east. The environs are in a state of high cultivation, studded with villages, country houses, and gardens.
Barcelona, as a residence, is not only delightful but healthy. There are, indeed, some days, when all the inhabitants, but more especially strangers, are inclined to think it both unpleasant and unhealthy; that is, when the east wind brings in the fog, which for many days before had been observed standing off at sea, as if watching and waiting for an opportunity to land. The pores are then locked up, and the temper becomes so irritable, that the best friends must be careful how they meet. But no sooner does the land breeze spring up, than the fog retires, the sun breaks out, and all nature wears a smile. In Barcelonetta, and the citadel, in which a garrison of 5,500 men is quartered, intermittents never cease to rage, and bring on in winter, dropsies and jaundices, and in summer malignant fevers. The same diseases reign beyond Montjuich, in the low country, watered by the Llobregat; but although the prevailing wind in its passage becomes loaded with noxious vapours, yet being diverted from its course by that high mountain, it has no baleful influence on Barcelona.
The fortifications of Monjuich, a high mountain, which bound the city to the west are reckoned perfect in their kind; they are highly finished, and for beauty do credit to the nation. These, in addition to the strong works round the city, and the citadel, must render Barcelona untenable by an enemy.
If my conjecture, says
Townsend,
be well founded, Monjuich must not merely have been covered with the sea, and this fact is beyond a doubt, but it must have been relatively lower, and much lower than the granite mountains, by whose spoils it was conpos
d, being accumulated at the conflux of two or more currents, as we see in miniature in torrents, or at the junction of two streams. Whoever is well acquainted with the external appearance, and internal structure of the country round Southampton, will see a striking example of this accumulation, not from matter brought by either of its rivers, for their beds are too low for such an operation, but by the action of currents, when the surrounding hills of Sussex, Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and the isle of Wight, were under the surface of the sea, as we must conclude from the fossile shells, found in the chalk on every one of these hills.
The appellation of Monjuich has never been properly explained. They anciently wrote Monjouy, but the pronunciation is Monjuique, which may possibly mean, mountain of the Jews. Certain it is, that the Jews were numerous in this part of Spain, and that on the hill looking towards the city, there are monumental inscriptions in Hebrew characters, on large hewn rocks. Many of the words are scarcely legible, but by those which can be read, that spot appears to have been the burial place of the Jews. This mountain commands a view over the coast, plain, and harbour; not a single house in Barcelona but lies exposed to the sight.
The form of Barcelona is almost circular, the Roman town being on the highest ground, in the center of the new one; the ancient walls are still visible in several places, but the sea has retired many hundreds of yards from the port gates; one of the principal gothic churches, and a whole quarter of the city, stands upon the sands that were once the bottom of the harbour.
The port is handsome, and the mole all of hewn stone, being a master piece of solidity and convenience; above is a platform for carriages, and below vast magazines, with a broad key, reaching from the city gates to the light house. This grand improvement was planned and executed by the late Marquis
de la Minas.
Great are the obligations Barcelona has to him, he cleansed and beautified its streets, built useful edifices, and forwarded its trade and manufactures without much extraordinary expence to the province, for he had more resources, and made money go farther than most other governors either could or even wish to do. On the neck of land running into the sea, and forming the port, he pulled down some fishermen's huts, and in 1752 began to build Barceloneta a regular town, consisting of about 2000 brick houses, quarters for a regiment, and a church in which his ashes are deposited. As the land was given gratis, the houses were soon run up on a regular plan; a ground floor and one story above, with three windows in front, and a pediment over them, the whole consisting of about 20 streets, &c. containing near 10,000 inhabitants.
It gives pleasure, says
Baretti,
to see the pleasing uniformity of all the houses running parallel to each other from the beginning to the end of every street. No house has more than one story besides the ground floor, and the streets are wide enough to admit of two and even three carriages abreast. The front of every house is covered with white plaster, which, as it is laid on very smooth, shines like marble half polished. Yet the glare proves not offensive to the eye, as the intercolumniations are coloured with a pale red, and the window shutters painted green.
On conditions they conform to this plan, and provided they are catholics, strangers are admitted indiscriminately with the natives to build as many houses as they please, and to have equally with the natives, the soil for nothing.
To this advantage are added two others, that of being naturalized without any other formality; and having the faith of government pledged to them that they shall never pay any ground-rent, nor other tax whatever, on account of any building they may erect.
Another of La
Minas's
improvements is the rampart or great walk upon the walls, extending the whole length of the harbour. The whole is built upon arches, with magazines below, and a broad coach road, and foot path above, raised to the level of the first floor of the houses in the adjoining street.
The citadel has six strong bastions calculated to overawe the inhabitants as much as to defend them from a foreign enemy. The lowness of its situation renders it damp, unwholesome and swarming with mosquitos. The Major of this fortress owes his promotion to a singular circumstance. When the late king arrived at Madrid in 1759, a magnificent bull feast was given in honour of that event: it being necessary upon such occasions that those who fight on horseback should be gentlemen, the managers of the exhibition were greatly at a loss; till this man who was a poor starving officer presented himself, though utterly ignorant both of bull-fighting and horsemanship. By dint of resolution, and the particular favor of fortune, he kept his seat, and performed his part so much to the public satisfaction that he was rewarded with a pension and a majority.
The streets of Barcelona are narrow and crooked like those of all ancient cities, but they are well paved; a covered drain in the middle of each street, carries off the filth and rain water. At night they are tolerably well lighted up, but long before day-break every lamp is out. The houses are lofty and plain. To each kind of trade a particular district is allotted.
Of the four gates that the town has, there are two on the sea side; at one of which, people go out, but must come in at the other. A good contrivance to facilitate the inspection of whatever is not to be introduced without the previous payment of custom duties.
Within the town, and just by the playhouse, there is a large square, called La Rambla, where on summer evenings, people of both sexes resort to walk, and converse until supper time, and often during the best part of the night, as is the general custom in Spain, where every town has a square, or at least a street, dedicated to such evening conversations.
The old Roman town may still be distinctly traced with one of its gates, and some of its towers well preserved. In this are many sarcophagi, altars, images, and inscriptions, with a temple of Neptune: there are also the remains of a palace of the Praetor, or Roman Governor; in the court yard of which, is a beautiful cistern, or rather sarcophagus, which now serves as a watering trough for mules. They call it the coffin of
Pompey's
father, and it may as well be his, as that of any other person, as we have no proof to the contrary. A large bas-relief runs round it of hunters, dogs, and wild beasts. The chief person is on horseback, bare-headed, in a military dress. The figures and animals are executed in a masterly stile, and the whole is a fine monument of antiquity.
It was in this city, that
Ferdinand
and
Isabella
received
Columbus,
returning from America, and from hence that navigator sailed on his second expedition, in 1493.
In viewing the churches of Barcelona, says
Townsend,
an observation is confirmed, which had occurred even in the most contemptible of the country villages, south of the Pyrenees, namely, that all their decorations were invented about the beginning of the 16th century, after the gold and silver of America had been brought to Spain, and every altar piece with every column, shews that their improvement in taste, did not keep pace with their increase of wealth. Riches came upon them by surprise, and found them unprepared to make a proper use of the abundant treasure. Hence even the composite and Corinthian pillars are loaded with new ornaments, and whether fluted or contorted, they are entwined by ivy and by vines, and are almost hid by the multitude of angels fluttering round them, or by cherubs climbing up the branches; and the whole of this preposterous assemblage, is covered with one glare of gold.
The principal edifices are the cathedral, Santa Maria, the General's palace, and the Exchange. The architecture of the cathedral, is a light gothic, which in the ornaments of the cloisters, is inimitably airy. The stalls of the choir are neatly carved, and hung with escutcheons of princes and noblemen, among which are the arms of our
Henry
VIII. In the cloysters, various kinds of foreign birds are kept upon funds bequeathed for that purpose by a wealthy canon. I could not learn, says
Swinburne,
what motives induced him to make so whimsical a devise. Santa Maria is also a gothic pile. The palace is square and low, without out-courts or gardens, and contains nothing worthy of remark, but a noble ballroom, in which are the portraits of all the ancient Counts of Barcelona.
The exchange, which is not yet finished, is opposite the Governor's palace, and will be one of the finest monuments in the city; some of the halls or chambers are occupied by the Junto of commerce, and others serve for drawing-schools, like those of Paris, where the art of drawing is taught
gratis.
This academy of the noble arts, says
Townsend,
is open to all the world, and all those who chuse to attend, are gratuitously taught drawing, architecture, and sculpture, under the direction of able masters. For this purpose, there are seven spacious halls, finished at the king's expence, with tables, benches, lights, paper, pencils, drawings, models, clay, and living subjects; the students assemble in the morning, from 10 to 12, and in the evening, from six to eight in winter, and from eight to ten in summer.
I counted, says the above author, one night, upwards of 500 boys, many of whom were finishing designs, which shewed either superior genius, or more than common application. It is not to be imagined, that all these boys, or perhaps any of them, were destined to be painters; this was not the intention of government, much less of the nobleman who suggested the institution. Most, if not all these youths, are apprenticed to trades; and it is well imagined, that every other art may receive some assistance from this, whose peculiar property it is to excel in imitation. Such institutions are much wanted in England. Not only the sculptor, the architect, and the engineer, but the coach-maker, the cabinet-maker, the weaver, and even the taylor and the haberdasher, may derive great advantages from that accuracy of sight, and that fertility of invention, which are acquired by the practice of drawing and designing.
One of the seven halls is fitted up for a nautical school, and provided with every thing needful to teach the art of navigation. The students assemble every morning from eight to ten, and every evening from three to five. Since the first establishment of this useful seminary, they have sent more than 500 pilots, qualified to navigate a vessel to any quarter of the globe.
Equally well furnished with the preceding, and equally well conducted is the military academy, in which are three magnificent apartments for the students to pursue their studies from the first elements of the mathematics, to the higher branches of their profession. This, and similar academies, established by the reigning monarch, are of vast importance to the nation, as furnishing a sufficient supply of engineers in time of war, without the necessity of depending, as in former periods, wholly on its allies. These seminaries in Spain, are the only schools in which the mathematics can be studied to advantage; for although in all the universities, professors are appointed, they are said to be wholly ignorant of this science, which they profess to teach.
Besides these institutions for the instruction of such as are devoted to arts or arms, there are not wanting some of more general utility, accessible to all the citizens, without distinction. These are a cabinet of natural history, and the public libraries, of which there are four, three general, and the other confined to medicine and surgery. In short, whatever studies a person may be desirous of pursuing, he will find in one or other of these libraries, the best books to which he may have access six hours every day, excepting holidays. In the convent of the Dominicans, there is one apartment filled entirely with books, prohibited by the inquisition; and in order that no one may be tempted to peruse them, all the vacant spaces are filled with devils cracking human bones, it is to be supposed of heretics. These books, however, are under strict lock and key.
In the cloyster of this convent, may likewise be seen more than 500 records of sentences passed on heretics, containing their names, their ages, their occupations, their places of abode, the time when they were condemned, and the event; whether the party were burnt in prison or in effigy. Most of these were women. The first date is in 1489, and the last, 1726. Under each inscription, there is a portrait of the heretic, some half, others more than three parts devoured by devils.
Visiting the churches at all hours, says
Townsend,
whenever any service was to be performed, I made a party with some friends to hear a penitential service, which is so singular, I cannot help relating it. The first part of the
Miserere
was no sooner ended, than the doors were shut, the lights extinguished, and we remained in perfect darkness. At this moment, when the eye could no longer find an object to distract the mind, the attention was awakened by the voice of harmony, the whole congregation joining in the
Miserere,
which they sung with pleasing solemnity: at first with soft and plaintive notes; but having laid bare their naked backs, and prepared them for the scourge; they all began nearly at the same instant to use the discipline, raising their voices, and quickening the time, increasing by degrees, both in velocity and violence, and scourging themselves with greater vehemence as they proceeded, then singing louder and harsher, till at the end of about 20 minutes, all distinction of sound was lost, and the whole ended in one deep groan. This discipline is repeated every Friday in the year, oftener in Lent, and is their daily practice during the holy week.
The
hospicio,
or house of industry, next merits being noticed. There are in this hospital, generally about 1450 paupers. The expence is estimated about 5000l. a year. The women and children are employed in knitting, spinning, and making lace. The men card, comb, spin, and weave cotton, flax, and wool. Although no paupers can be either better clad, better fed, better attended, or better lodged, or can meet with greater tenderness when sick; yet they cannot readily forget their loss of liberty, and few besides the most decrepit, would remain within those walls, if they could be permitted to beg their bread from door to door. This principle, however, is productive of much good, for most of the young men of Barcelona, of any worth or spirit, form themselves into clubs for mutual relief, in the same manner, and nearly upon the same plan, adopted by our friendly societies in England. These fraternities have each its firm, taken from the name of the saint, to whose protection it is recommended. They are upon the most respectable footing, and being well conducted, leave none but the most improvident and most worthless subjects to be disgraced by confinement among fools and madmen. Of the 1450 paupers, it should have been observed there are 300 idiots.
There is likewise a house of correction, too remarkable to be passed over in silence. It embraces two objects; the first is the reformation of prostitutes and female thieves; the second, the correction of such women as fail in their obligation to their husbands, and of those who either neglect or disgrace their families. The house for these purposes, is divided into distinct portions, without any communication between them. The ladies, who deserve more severe correction than their husbands, fathers, or other relations can properly administer, are confined by the magistrates for a term proportioned to their offence, in this royal mansion of correction. The relation, at whose suit they are taken into custody, pay three sueldos, or four-pence halfpenny per day for their maintenance, and with this scanty provision, they must be contented. Here they are compelled to work, and the produce of their labour is deposited for them, till the time of their confinement is expired. The whole building will contain 5000 women; but when
Townsend
was there, there were only 113. Among these, are some ladies of condition, who are supposed to be visiting some distant friends. When it is judged necessary, they receive bodily correction for their reformation. Among other particulars, says
Townsend,
the governor who conducted me through the several apartments, informed me, they had then under discipline, a lady of fashion, accused of drunkenness, and of being imprudent in her conduct. As she was a widow, the party accusing, was her brother in law, the Marquis.
No hospital that I have seen upon the continent, says
Townsend,
is so well administered, as the general hospital of this city. It is peculiar in its attention to convalescents, for whom a separate habitation is provided, that after they are dismissed from the sick wards, as cured of their diseases, they may have time to recruit their strength, before they are turned out to endure their accustomed hardships, and to get their bread by labour. Nothing can be more useful, nothing more humane, than this appendage. The numbers received into this hospital, were, in the year 1785, upwards of 9,000, and in 1786, upwards of 6,000. In the former year, they buried upwards of 800, in the latter, upwards of 900; which, upon the average, is nearly a ninth of those who enter; but then it must be considered, that many are put into public hospitals, merely to save the expence of funerals.
With this hospital, is united under the same administration, an establishment for foundlings, sufficiently capacious for the city and its environs. The deserted children were above 500 on the average of 1785, and 1786, and of these, two thirds were buried; a proportion, shocking to humanity, but the inevitable consequence of taking children from their mothers, and crowding them in a city, more especially, if, as in Barcelona, five children hang upon one nurse. It is much to be lamented, that they have not like the French, recourse to the milk of goats, or like the nurses of the orphan hospital in Dublin, learnt the use of sucking bottles.
The boys on this foundation are bound apprentice when of a proper age; the girls, when marriageable, are conducted in procession through the streets, and any young man who sees one, whom he would like for a wife, is at liberty to mark her, which he does, by throwing his handkerchief to her.
Barcelona may be considered as divided either into districts, or into parishes; the former being five, the latter eight, including the cathedral. In a circumference of four miles, it contains at present 10,000 houses, 20,000 families, and about 100,000 inhabitants.
The wealth which flows into Barcelona, is not confined within its walls, but helps to encrease the population of all the surrounding villages, which in the compass of five leagues, are 105, all subject to its jurisdiction, and all partaking of that tranquillity, which arises from energy in a well constituted government.
The industry which every where appears in Catalonia, seems to act with concentrated force in Barcelona. Early and late, not only is the hammer heard upon the anvil, but every artist is seen busily employed. The two chief trades here, are taylors and shoe-makers, who are employed in cloathing the army not only in Spain, but over the whole empire.
Amongst the more considerable trades, are the silk-weavers, cutlers, gunsmiths, armourers, braziers, carpenters, cabinet-makers, turners, with fringe-makers and embroiderers. Here is also a foundery for cannon. The ingenuity of the Spanish artists, is allowed to exceed that of most other countries.
The manufactures have increased with such rapidity, that the wages of labour for all kinds of articles in the city and environs, have advanced to one shilling and eight-pence a day, for which they work only seven hours. These gains, however, are not out of proportion to the value of provisions, as regulated by the magistrates. Mutton is sold for 10 pence the pound, of 36 ounces; beef for seven-pence, and bread at present, for seven farthings the pound, of 12 ounces; lodging for a small family, costs about two guineas a year.
The commerce of Barcelona is considerable. It has no navigable river, and seems to have been built in its present situation, only for the sake of deriving protection from the high mountain which commands it. The bason is formed by a mole, and is sufficiently capacious, but there is only 12 feet water on the bar.
Brandy, wine, nuts, almonds, raisins, and cork, are shipped at different places on the coast for the merchants, who reside in Barcelona. The price of the wines varies according to the season, these are of several sorts, the average price of which, including the Spanish duties, is about 50 shillings the hogshead. When brandy is dearest, it is sold duty free on board, Hollands proof at one shilling and four-pence halfpenny the gallon, but sometimes as low as ten-pence.
Swinburne
makes the annual exports of brandy, from one town in Catalonia, near Tarragon Reus, to amount to 20,000 pipes. Five pipes of wine, makes one of strong brandy. Catalonia furnishes 35,000 pipes of brandy, and 2,000 of wine, besides 30,000 bags of nuts, containing three bushels each, at 20 shillings the bag. Of the above, says
Townsend,
about 4,000 pipes of brandy, and some silk, go to Guernsey and Alderney, and the rest to France, all to be smuggled into England.
About 1,000 vessels enter the port of Barcelona yearly, of which one half are Spanish, 100 English, 120 French, and 60 are Danes.
The imports besides corn, are about 8,000,000 weight of Newfoundland cod, sold at one guinea per hundred weight; beans from Holland for the poor people, and an inferior sort from Africa, for the mules; salted conger eel from Cornwall and Britany, sold at 40 or 50 shillings per quintal; this is an unwholesome, luscious food, which they cook up with garlick and spice; there are likewise imported English bale goods, and many other articles of luxury.
There are two other cities in this province, which, on account of their antiquity, it may not be amiss just to notice, Tarragon and Lerida.
Tarragon is one of the most ancient cities in Spain, and said to have been built by the Phenicians, who gave it the name of Tarcon, of which the Latins made Tarraco. It gave its name to one of the most considerable parts of Spain, called by the Romans Tarraconensis: the city was fortified by
Scipio,
who made it a place of defence against the Carthaginians.
This city, says
Peyron,
is the metropolis of Catalonia, and disputes with
Toledo
the primacy of Spain. The establishment of the see, is said to have been in the first ages of the church; the succession of archbishops was interrupted by the Moors, and remained suspended till the 11th century.
Tarragon, of all the cities in Spain, says
Townsend,
would give the most agreeable employment to the antiquarian. Here he would admire the remains of an amphitheatre, of a theatre, of a circus, of the palace of
Augustus,
of temples, and of an extensive aqueduct with fortifications, which although of a more recent date, are ancient.
The cathedral is worthy of attention for its vast dimensions, the elegance of its gothic architecture, and a magnificent chapel, built with rich marble and jasper, in honour of S.
Thecla,
tutelar saint of the church.
This city contains about 8,000 inhabitants, but whenever the canal of Arragon shall be navigable, the whole country will feel the influence of reviving commerce, and among other cities, this may regain its ancient population.
Trade is now confined to wine and brandy, but for home consumption, they carry on a considerable fishery.
To protect the inhabitants from the incursions of the Moors, they have erected batteries. These are the more needful, because the ancient fortifications are gone to ruin, and the Algerines have committed frequent depredations on the coast.
Near this city, in a wood of pines and shrubs is a monument that tradition has named the tomb of the
Scipio's.
They were the father and uncle of
Scipio Africanus,
both killed in Spain. This building is small, being about 19 feet square, and 28 high. In the front, facing the sea, are the statues of two warriors, in a mournful posture, roughly cut out of the stones of the sepulchre, and much worn away by the sea air. The inscription is now so much defaced, that it is difficult to trace it out.
The situation of Lerida is delightful, and the country in which it stands, is one continued garden, covered with corn, with olive trees, and vines. For beauty, few places can exceed it, but from the abundance of water, it is far from being healthy. This city, called Ilerda by the Romans, was rendered famous by the distress to which
Julius Caesar
was reduced, when encamped in its neighbourhood. He had taken possession of a plain, shut in between the rivers Cinga and Sicoris, and defended by a deep entrenchment, whilst
Petreius
and
Afranius, Pompey's
Generals, were encamped on a hill between him and Ilerda. Between the hill and the city, is a plain with an eminence, which, if seized, might be quickly fortified, and would cut off all communication with the city. For this, during five hours, they maintained a doubtful conflict, but in the end, fortune declared in favour of
Afranius
and
Caesar
retreated to his camp. Whilst revolving in his mind, how he should cover this disgrace, word was brought, that by the melting of the snow upon the mountains, his two bridges were broken down, that the country was laid under water, and that all communication was cut off with the provinces, by which his army had been fed. The immediate consequence was famine. It was upon the news of this distress, that
Cicero
left the city, and joined
Pompey
at Dyrrachium.
Caesar,
without loss of time, set his men to work, and having made a sufficient number of little boats, light and portable like those he had seen in Britain; after a few days, sent a party up the river in the night, who, with these boats, made good, their landing, and, having fortified a camp, secured his retreat.
CHAP. IV.
Character, Manners, Dress, &c. of Catalonia.
THIS province is almost throughout extremely mountainous. The nature of the country appears to have great influence on that of the inhabitants, who are a hardy, active, industrious race, of a middle size, brown complexion, and strong features; their limbs well knit together, and by education and practice, inured to the greatest fatigues; there are few lame or distorted persons, or beggars to be met with among them. Their mocos, or mule-boys, are stout walkers; some of them have been known to go from Barcelona to Madrid, and back again, in nine days, which by the high road, is 600 miles.
The Catalonians are excellent for light infantry, on the forlorn hope, or for a
coup de main:
but though brave and indefatigable, they are averse to the strictness of regular discipline, unless it be in their own national regiments. They cannot brook the thoughts of being menial servants in their own country; but will rather trudge it all over with a pedlar's pack on their shoulders, or run about upon errands, than be chief domestic in a Catalonian family. Far from home, they make excellent servants, and most of the principal houses in Madrid, have Catalonians at the head of their affairs. They are the general muleteers and calessieros of Spain; are to be met with in every part of the kingdom; their honesty, steadiness, and sobriety, entitle them to the confidence of travellers, and their thirst after lucre makes them bear with any hardships. With good words, they are always docile; but will not bear hard usage, or opprobrious language.
The rigid parfimony of this people, appears in their scanty provision for the day. When they carry their little basket to the market, together with their beef and garden stuff, they bring home two deniers worth of charcoal. This circumstance is so characteristic, that when they would reproach the rich miser for his penury, they say, that notwithstanding his opulence, he continues to send to market for
dos dineros de carbon.
Twelve deniers making a penny.
The loss of all their immunities, the ignominious prohibition of every weapon, even a knife, and an enormous load of taxes, have not been able to stifle their independent spirit, which breaks out upon the least stretch of arbitrary power; but within these four years, many of their ancient privileges have been gradually restored. Their taxation is still very high. All trade is assessed according to the business supposed to be transacted in the course of the year, without regard either to loss or gain.
Till of late, the inhabitants of Catalonia durst not carry any knife, but in each public house, there was one chained to the table, for the use of all comers. The good order maintained by the police, and vigilance of the thief-takers, supply the place of defensive weapons; robberies and murthers being seldom heard of; the streets of Barcelona may be walked over at all hours, provided the passenger carries a light with him; without it, he is liable to be carried to prison by the patrol.
SPANISH MULATEER and THIEF TAKER.
The common dress of a Catalonian sailor, or muleteer, is brown, and the distinction mark by which they are known in Spain, is a red woolen cap, falling forwards, like that of the ancient Phrygians. The middling sort of people and artificers, wear hats and dark cloaths, with a loose coat, carelessly tossed over the shoulders. Their breeches are commonly black velvet; they have seldom any stockings, and sandals supply the place of shoes.
The dress of the women in general, is a black silk petticoat, over a little hoop, shoes without heels, bare shoulders, and a black veil, stiffened out with wire, so as to arch out on each side of the head, something resembling the hooded serpent; and in Spain, Italy, and Africa, all the inhabitants bind themselves up with sashes, as a preventative of ruptures.
The mode of drinking in Catalonia, is singular: they hold a broad bottomed glass bottle, at arms length, and let the liquor spout out of a long neck upon their tongue.
The devotion of the Catalonians seems to be pretty much upon a par, with that of their neighbours in the southern provinces of France, and much less ardent than in the other parts of Spain; but they still abound with strange practices of religion, and local worship. One very odd idea of theirs is, that on the first of November, the eve of All Souls, they run about from house to house, to eat chesnuts, believing that for every chesnut they swallow, with proper faith and unction, they shall deliver a soul out of purgatory.
There are now but one or two churches at most in each city that are allowed the privilege of protecting offenders, and murderers are excluded from the benefit of the sanctuary. The proceedings of the inquisition are grown very mild. If any person leads a scandalous life, or allows his tongue unwarrantable liberties, he is summoned by the holy office, and privately admonished; in case of non-amendment, he is committed to prison. Once a year every family must answer to that tribunal for their orthodoxy, and that of every servant they have, or they must quit the country; hut the foreign protestant houses are passed over unnoticed; and peovided a foreigner does not make religion the subject of his discourse, he may live at Barcelona in what manner he pleases.
Every Jew that lands in Spain, must declare himself to be such at the inquisition; which immediately appoints a familiar to attend him all the time he stays on shore, to whom he pays a pistole a day. Were he to neglect giving this information, he would be liable to be seized. Yet, says
Swinburne,
I have been assured by persons of undoubted credit, that a Jew may travel
incognito
from Perpignan to Lisbon, and sleep every night at the house of a Jew, being recommended from one to another, and that wherever a house is remarkably decked out with images, relics, and lamps, and the owner noted for being the most enthusiastic devotee of the parish, it is ten to one but the family are Israelites at heart.
If a stranger is desirous of becoming acquainted with Spanish customs and manners, he must proceed further; for this province bears so little resemblance to the rest of the kingdom, that he will derive no real knowledge on that score, from travelling in Catalonia. Here it is not uncommon for them to talk of a journey into Spain, as they would of one into France; and their language is not understood by the Spaniards, being a dialect of the ancient Limosine tongue, a kind of Gascon.
In Catalonia, the traveller is under the protection of the magistrate, who settles the price of every thing he may want, and annually publishes his
arancel,
that is, a table of assize, which must be hung up in some conspicuous place of every inn. According to this, every guest occupying a bed-room with one bed, must pay for that and his light, three sueldos, and nine deniers, or something less than five-pence; but if there are several beds in one room, then each pays two-pence-halfpenny nearly. If he does not occupy a bed, he must pay for shelter six deniers, or nine fourteenths of a penny. Every carriage pays one sueldo per night for standing. The ordinary is regulated as to the number and nature of the dishes, both for dinner and supper; and for these, the prices are, including bread and wine for dinner, 15 sueldos, or one shilling and seven-pence-farthing, and for supper, 15 sueldos, three deniers.
CHAP. V.
Of the Kingdom of Valencia, which made part of the ancient Kingdom of Arragon.
THE kingdom of Valencia, is about 60 leagues in extent from north to south; its greatest breadth, however, does not exceed 25. It is bounded on the south and east by the Mediterranean, on the west by New Castile, and the kingdom of Murcia; and on the north by Catalonia and Arragon. It was formerly inhabited by the Celtiberians, the Turdetani, the Lusoni, &c. &c.
This is one of the best watered provinces in Spain. There are no fewer than 35 rivers, all of which run east or south-east into the Mediterranean; it is also in proportion to its extent, one of the best peopled provinces; it contains seven principal cities, 64 great towns, and upwards of 1000 villages; has four sea-ports, the most considerable of which, is that of Alicant.
The air and climate of Valencia, would be highly beneficial to the English, in a variety of cases; more especially for nervous, and hypocondriac disorders, shattered constitutions, and for those who suffer either by a redundancy, or suppression of bile. They would find the oranges and grapes most powerful detergents; and every article of food, whether animal or vegetable, being light and easy of digestion, the most delicate stomach would never feel oppressed. In our island, these patients suffer by humidity; but in Valencia, such is the dryness of the air, that sugar and salt may constantly be exposed, without contracting the least sign of moisture.
Among the natural curiosities in this province, the most remarkable are the baths of Buzot, in the vicinity of Alicant. Their temperature is about 104 degrees of
Fahrenheit's
thermometer. Two or three small tumblers of this water prove speedily and pleasantly cathartic. This part of the country is frequently shaken by strong earthquakes.
Silk is certainly the most considerable article produced in the province of Valencia, being nearly equal to all the rest together. The land in this fertile valley never rests, for no sooner is one crop removed, than the farmer begins to prepare it for another. In September he sows barley, which having reaped about the latter end of April, he immediately puts in maize, which comes off about the middle of September. In November he sows wheat, and in June reaps it. The produce both of wheat and barley, is from 15 to 24 for one, having sown of the former nearly two bushels, and of the latter, between three and four to an acre. Flax is put into the ground about September, and comes off in May; but hemp sowed in April, continues till August. These, with cucumbers, melons, peas, French beans, lettuce, form a rich variety of crops, which, cherished by a bright sun, and fed by abundant streams, prove a never failing source of plenty.
In the spring they abound with oranges and lemons; in summer they have plums, cherries, figs apricots, and nectarines; in autumn they gather grapes; and in winter, a rich variety of fruits supplies their tables. Thus
Ceres
and
Pomona
appear to be enjoyed in a never ceasing contest, which shall most contribute to the wealth and prosperity of this favoured valley.
One of the most valuable productions of the country, is the barilla. This is a vegetable peculiar to the kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia; it is essential in the making of glass. About 150,000 quintals are gathered of it every year, most of which is sent to France and England, and a small quantity to Genoa and Venice.
There is another species of barilla, called in English, pot-ash, employed in the soap manufactures of France and England, a considerable quantity of which, is exported from the kingdom of Valencia.
Those voracious insects, the locusts, occasionally commit great devastations in this part of Spain; and this proceeds not merely from the warmth of the climate, but for want of cultivation, because the females never deposit their eggs in arable land, but always in deserts. For this reason Galicia, where agriculture prevails, is little infested with the locust.
When the provincial governors are informed in spring, that locusts have been seen, they collect the soldiers and the peasants, divide them into companies, and surround the district. Every man is furnished with a long broom, with which he strikes the ground, and thus drives the young locusts towards a common centre, where a vast excavation, with a quantity of brush wood, is prepared for their reception, and where the flame destroys them.
In the year 1780, 3,000 men were thus employed at Zamora for three weeks; and it was reckoned, that the quantity collected, exceeded 10,000 bushels.
CHAP. VI.
Cities, &c.
THE principal cities in this fine province, termed the garden of Spain, are Valencia, Morviedro, and Alicant.
Valencia is one of the largest cities in Spain, its situation is delightful, and the country round it a perfect garden, watered by the Guadalaviar, on the banks of which, the city stands, at the distance of about half a league from the sea. There are five handsome stone bridges, built over the river, three of which have each 10 arches, another has nine, and the last has 13. Without the gates, are the college of Pope
Pius
V. and the palaces of the Viceroy, though this title is now altered to that of Captain-general. The
Alameda,
or Mall, resembles that of St. James's Park, but is much more beautiful, on account of the trees, which are palms, cypress, elms, and mulberry trees intermixed, of which there are four double rows, forming three walks or alleys. There are many delightful walks along the river side, faced with stone, the better to resist the force of the water in winter. This city is walled, and has four gates. The houses are all numbered, as with us, and the names of the streets painted on tiles on the corner houses. Its ancient name is unknown, but it is said to have been taken and fortified by
Scipio,
destroyed by
Pompey,
and rebuilt by
Sertorius.
It was taken from the Romans by the Goths, and from these latter by the Moors, who, at two different periods, possessed it 240 years, but in 1238, it was finally conquered by the King of Arragon.
The streets of Valencia are narrow, crooked, unpaved, and impassable after rain; and in these, there are but two or three houses built with taste, and a few churches distinguished by their architecture. In a word, it is a city built by the Moors, who, associating seldom with each other, and shut up with their women, considered streets as nothing more than necessary paths, and gave their whole attention to the interior of their houses, which were airy and spacious, but in general inconvenient and badly distributed.
The houses are filthy, ill built, and ruinous; most of the churches are tawdry, and loaded with barbarous ornaments, both without and within. In the multitude of sacred edifices, some may be found that excel in particular parts, as one may please the eye by the just proportion of its dimensions, another strike by the richness of its marble and paintings; but in all of them, the judicious observer will be disgusted with loads of garlands, pyramids, broken pediments, and monstrous cornices. Some churches have domes, but the greater part of them tall and slender turrets, painted and bedecked with all sorts of pilasters and whimsical devices; every thing is likewise gilt and bedaubed with incredible profusion.
Priests, nuns, and friars of every dress and denomination, swarm in this city, where some convents have more than 100 monks all richly provided for.
The university of Valencia is a respectable community; it was founded in 1411, and soon after its institution,
Alonso
III. of Arragon, granted the privilege of nobility to all the students who should graduate in law. It was lately much on the decline, but they now reckon 2,400 students. There are 20 professors.
Besides the library of the university, which contains many thousand volumes, mostly modern and well chosen; four galleries in the Archbishop's palace are devoted to the use of the students, and contain 32,000 volumes, among which are many modern publications in every branch of science.
In traversing the city, says
Townsend,
to view whatever was most worthy of attention, considering its flourishing condition, and the opulence of its citizens, whether merchants, manufacturers, ecclesiastics, the military, or gentlemen of landed property, I was struck with the sight of poverty, wretchedness, and rags in every street. The hospicio, or general workhouse, provides for 220 men, 150 boys, 280 women, and 90 girls, who are all well fed, well clothed, and well lodged; yet the city swarms with sturdy beggars. I suspected, however, what I found to be the case, that the ecclesiastics distribute money, and yet the convents give bread and broth every day to all those who make application at their gates. This circumstance will sufficiently account for the multitude of miserable objects, who, in Valencia, as in all other places, bear exact proportion to the undistinguishing benevolence of wealth.
One establishment deserves the highest commendation; it is a
monte pio,
or bank for the assistance of farmers, who are unable to purchase seed. For this loan they pay no interest, the funds being furnished from the effects of Metropolitans, deceased, and from vacant benefices. From the same funds in Galicia, fishermen are provided with boats and nets.
No city in Spain, pays more attention to the arts, than the city of Valencia. The public academy for painting, statuary, and architecture, is well attended, and many of the pupils seem rising to eminence. To have good designers, is of the greatest importance to their manufactures of silk, porcelaine, and painted tiles.
The silk manufacture is the most important, because the most natural to their soil and climate. This trade is still increasing, and they have now 5000 silk looms, and 300 stocking frames. Their silk is 30
per cent
cheaper than it is in France, yet they are not able to meet their rivals fairly in the market.
At Alcora, in the neighbourhood of Valencia, is a manufacture of porcelaine, established by Count
d'Aranda,
which deserves encouragement. Their imitation of gilding is very pleasing and natural, and after many years trial, has been found to be durable.
But, says
Townsend,
I was most delighted with the manufacture of painted tiles. In Valencia, their best apartments are floored with these, and are remarkable for neatness, coolness, and elegance. They are stronger and much more beautiful than those we formerly received from Holland.
The commerce of Valencia is considerable. The
Abbé Cavanilleo,
states the produce of this fertile province in 1770, to have been near 3,000,000 sterling. In this account, I am inclined to think, says
Townshend,
the brandy is omitted, of which there are commonly seven or 3,000 pipes exported annually, most of which comes to us, through Guernsey, as French brandy.
The manufactures of silk, are the cause of a population in this province, that may be reckoned considerable, if compared with the other provinces of Spain; it being computed that there are nearly 1,000,000 of inhabitants resident in 570 towns and villages, of which this province consists. Of this number, the city of Valencia alone, is supposed to contain 100,000.
The road from Valencia to Xativa, the ancient Soetabis, is bordered on each side with small canals of running water, like those in the plains of Lombardy. The distance from Valencia to this latter city, is nine leagues. The whole country has the appearance of one continued garden. Here are many rice fields, which are always kept about three inches under water. The mulberry trees in these fields, are planted chequer-wise. This delightful country is surrounded partly by high mountains, (on which are many Moorish castles,) and partly by the Mediterranean sea. The country is so populous, that the towns and villages are not above half a league asunder, where may be seen crowds of women and children, sitting at the doors of their respective habitations, occupied in spinning silk.
Morviedro, which lies about four leagues north of Valencia, is the famous Saguntum, destroyed by
Hannibal,
for its fidelity to the Romans. The Romans afterwards rebuilt this city, but never could restore it to its former splendor.
The city of Morviedro, is full of the remains of its antiquity; the walls of the houses, the city gates, and doors of the churches and inns, are covered with Roman inscriptions.
At present, it is a considerable city, containing above 5,000 inhabitants, who are strangers to manufactures, and depend altogether for subsistence, on the produce of the soil. The commerce of this city is chiefly in oil, raisins, wine, and brandy.
Its most curious monuments are the castle and the theatre, the former contains heaps of ruins, the monuments of several centuries, and are at present upwards of a quarter of a league in extent. Most of the towers and edifices, of which the remains only are now to be seen, appear to have been constructed by the Moors, with the materials left them by the Romans.
The theatre, vast in its dimension, and capable of receiving near 10,000 persons, is hewn out of the rock, and commands a most extensive prospect of the subjacent country, which is bounded by the sea. It is sufficiently well preserved, plainly to distinguish the order in which the spectators were distributed at their dramatic representions. At the bottom in the place of our orchestra, are the seats for the magistrates; next those for the equestrian order, and last of all, those for the body of the people. As this theatre is built on the declivity of a mountain, the ground rises with the benches, so that on which ever side the people entered, they found themselves almost on a level with the place they were to occupy. Those of the lictors and courtezans, are still in good preservation, and the semicircular roof of the whole edifice is entire. What seemed to me, says
Peyron,
scarcely credible was, that the actors should in the open air have been able to make themselves heard by so numerous an audience. To assure myself of the fact, I placed a boy where the stage formerly was, and whilst I remained at the top of the amphitheatre, made him repeat phrases, of which I lost not a word. The front of the ancient stage, which in our modern theatres may be compared to the space in which the foot-lights are placed, has been converted into an alley of mulberry trees, and ropes are now made on that ground, where formerly the verses of
Terence
were recited to a Roman audience.
From the theatre of Saguntum, we climb, rather than walk up to the ancient fortresses of the Moors; upon the platform, on a summit, is a humble hermitage, the inhabitants of which enjoys one of the finest prospects in Spain.
From hence to Valencia is one perfect garden, so thick with trees, that there is no seeing at any distance on either side. Villages and monasteries every hundred yards, and such crowds of people as are scarce to be met with, but in the neighbourhood of London. All the grounds are divided into water channels, the work of the Moors, who understood the art of watering land to the utmost perfection. The ruinous state that these drains are now in, prove the indolence and inferiority of the present proprietors; what little skill they still shew in agriculture, being nothing but traditional remains of the instructions left by their great masters in husbandry, the Arabians.
Alicant is a sea-port on the Mediterranean, of great trade, protected by a strong castle, situated on a rock about 20 leagues south of Valencia, and as many to the north of Carthagena. One of the circumstances which has most contributed to the riches and commerce of Alicant, is the duties of entry being less there, than at either of the above cities.
Within four leagues of the city, there is a kind of reservoir, or cistern, between two mountains, called
El Pantano,
in which the water that falls from all the neighbouring mountains is received, and which, in case of a want of rain, serves to supply the whole district for a year. The walls of the bason are 200 feet high, and at the base, upwards of 40 feet thick.
The soil of the whole country between Alicant and Guardamar, is entirely saline. The salt pits here have been famous in history for these 2,000 years.
The waters of Boussot, a village within a few leagues of Alicant, are said to be of use in obstructions and venereal cases; people go to drink them in the month of May, but they find there no kind of lodging, and the sick who remain, are obliged to have small tenements erected for their accommodation. The rosemary plant thrives so well in this neighbourhood, that it frequently grows to the height of six feet.
Alicant is situated at the bottom of a bay, formed by the capes La Huerta, and San Pablo. The streets are narrow, and were exceedingly ill-paved; but now, indebted to the indefatigable zeal of the Governor Don
Francisco Pacheco,
few towns can boast of superior neatness; and this city, formerly in every sense a nest of vermin, is become a delightful residence. The inhabitants are in number about 18,000.
Neither the churches nor any of the convents are worthy to be noticed. In the great church, indeed, says
Townsend,
I was much amused, but not with the architecture, nor yet with any of the altars; for that which caught my attention, was a grant from the college of Cardinals, of 2580 days indulgence to any penitent, who shall say before the altar of the Virgin,
ave Maria purissima,
and of as many to all who hearing this shall answer,
Sin peceada concebida.
On the summit of a rocky mountain, rising just behind the town, is the castle, now fortified after the modern method, and extended far beyond the limits of the old fortress, great part of which was blown up with a fragment of the rock, in the war with the allies, in the reign of Queen
Anne.
This fortress was then in possession of the English, under the command of General
Richards.
When the Spaniards had nearly finished their work, they gave warning to
the garrison, and when they had lodged in it 1300 barrels of powder, they generously permitted the English General to send his engineers, who viewed the mine with its contents. These reported that the burthen was too great for the quantity of powder, and that the garrison was safe.
On the day appointed for the springing of this mine, people from every part of the country assembled on the opposite side to view the catastrophe, and notice of the fatal moment was given to the garrison. Precisely at that moment, the officers engaged in drinking, and somewhat elated by their wine, declared their resolution not to quit the battery, till they had drank two bottles more, for which they had sent a servant; but no sooner had he turned his back, than the battery, together with General
Richards,
and 20 gallant officers, mounted in the air.
In this city there is an institution, likely to be of extensive utility, in providing for orphans, and the sons of soldiers burthened with numerous families. It is a military academy, in which they are taught reading, writing, and accounts, the manual exercise and every thing needful to qualify them for serjeants. Indeed, the military establishments of every kind in this country, appear respectable, and mark at once wisdom and humanity in all their regulations. The soldiers are enlisted for eight years, during which, they are indulged with frequent furloughs. When they have served 15 years, their pay goes on gradually increasing, and after 35 years, they retire with the rank of commissioned officers, and a pension of about 20 pounds a year.
In scrambling along the rocks, says
Townsend,
I observed a track very strongly marked, leading to a part of the fort where the walls are low. This being at once the steepest and most rugged side of the mountain, it surprized me much. On my return, I enquired into the nature and use of such a sequestered way, and this was the result of my enquiries.
The laws in many provinces of Spain, being peculiarly favourable to the fair sex, if the wife complains of ill-treatment from her husband, he, on her sole evidence, is confined in prison; and should she declare on oath, that he had beaten her, the punishment would be yet more severe; he would be sent for many years to the
presidios.
When again a father is displeased with the conduct of his son, if it be such as tends to bring either ruin or disgrace on his family, the young man is sent to learn wisdom in retirement.
It appears from the observations of the Chief Justice Count
Compomanes,
in the appendix to his
educacion popular,
that in Spain, many persons of quality are shut up in prison for these and similar offences. He states, however, not much to the honour of the Spanish ladies, that their accusations are not always just. From him we may collect that a great number of these fair ones, persuaded by their Cortejos, falsely charge their husbands with ill-treatment, whenever the good men shew a disposition to be jealous.
Some young men of fashion, at the request of their fathers or wives, are, as the Governor informed me, destined to pass their tedious hours in this castle. Yet, by the connivance of the centinels, they are frequently in the dusk of the evening, permitted to scale the walls; when passing disguised into the city, they amuse themselves among their friends, till the company retires: after which, they return by the same solitary path, to their destined habitations; and this was precisely the path, which had attracted my attention.
In a conversation with the Governor, says the above writer, on a mode of punishment long since inflicted in France and Spain, and lately adopted in our island, that of employing criminals on public works; he perfectly agreed with me, that their labour is scarcely worth a tenth of what is expended on them; and he further assured me, that as far as his observation went, this punishment rather tended to harden them in wickedness, than produce a reformation in their manners. He particularly mentioned, that of about 5000 convicts banished to the garrison of Africa, the major part on their discharge, at the expiration of their terms, returned to the eastern coast of the peninsula, and to this circumstance he attributed the prevalence of the most atrocious crimes in that part of Spain.
The commerce of Alicant consists in barilla, antimony, allum, aniseed, cummin, and the wine so much esteemed in Europe, under the denomination of tent wine. The fine Alicant and tent wines, are made in a very beautiful vale near this city, studded with villages, villas, farms, and plantations of all kinds of fruit trees. Only two of the great number of proprietors of vineyards, make a practice of keeping their wines to a proper age. As the value is enhanced many-fold by keeping; the high price they get for their wines, amply repays them for the time they are out of their money. Of the common sorts, about 5000 tuns may be the amount, most of which is destined for the Bourdeaux merchants.
Water is the great agent, the primum mobile of all productions in this country; every thing languishes, and soon is parched up, without an ample supply of it. Whenever a spring breaks out, the king's people seize upon it, and allot to each landholder a proper hour for letting the water into his grounds. It is of so much consequence, that a guinea has been paid for an hour extraordinary.
CHAP. VI.
Of the People, &c.
THE lower class of men here, wear while linen waistcoats, trowsers which reach to the knees, much resembling the Highland fillebegs, with net hair caps, and sandals made of cord. The women have no caps, but plait their hair in a spiral figure, and fasten it with a large silver pin, in the same manner as those of Bologna and Naples.
The inhabitants of this province, says
Swinburne,
are said to have more of the filth, sullen, and unpolished manners of the old Spaniards, and to have adopted less of foreign improvements in civilization, than most other parts of Spain. They strut about all day in monstrous hats, and dark brown cloaks, which give the crowd in the streets, the appearance of a funeral procession. Scarce any society is kept up amongst them, though the salubrity of the climate and reasons of economy, induce several very considerable families to make this city (speaking of Alicant) the place of their abode. In some strange way or other, they spend large incomes, without doing themselves the least credit. Their chief expence lies in servants, mules, and equipages; low obscene amours, often consume the best part of their fortunes; and they live in so pitiful a manner, that most of them send to the wine vaults for a pint of wine to their meals.
Swinburne's
interview with the old Intendant of this province, and the anecdote of his hardness of heart, seem much of a piece with their general character. Our first morning at Valencia, says he, passed very strangely in a visit to the Intendant, to whom we brought a letter of recommendation from his
confrere
in Catalonia. The old usurer, whose figure resembled that of the bandy legged apothecary in
Hogarth's Marriage a la mode,
received us very ungraciously, took our letter and flung it on the table, without saying a single syllable to us, or even offering us a seat. Having waited for some time, we looked at each other, and could not help smiling. Upon this, the Intendant looked up, and asked," if we were not Catalonians?" "No, (replied I) we are English gentlemen on our travels." This answer produced a wonderful effect. "Oh, oh, you come from a better country! Can I be of any use to you? Bring these gentlemen chairs—do you choose to take any refreshment, said he, pulling off his hat, and making us a profound bow?" "We told him, the only thing we stood in need of, was protection against the people of the customs, who were continually pestering us for money to drink, or to buy tobacco with.
The Valencian, says
Peyron,
is subtle, false, and mild in his manners; he is the most idle, and at the same time the most supple individual that exists. All the tumblers and mountebanks of Spain come from the kingdom of Valencia.
The lower class of people in this province, are remarkable for their great superstition. The coachmen and mule drivers, carry constantly about with them the paw of a mole, to secure their mules and horses against the
mal de oios.
This, says
Townsend,
I conceived at first to be the diseases of the eye; but upon more accurate enquiry, found myself mistaken, and discovered that this expression meant the evil influence of witchcraft, conveyed by looks. In the southern provinces of Spain, as formerly throughout England, and even now in Cornwall, children and common people universally agree in attributing necromantic powers to the female in each village, who is the most deformed in person, the most decrepit with old age, and the most hagged in her looks. In Cornwall, it is necessary for the witch to repeat thrice, "I wish," but in Spain, one look conveys the fatal influence, and the object, unless relieved by a superior power, may droop and die. The proper amulets, are the paw of a mole, carried in the pocket, a bit of scarlet cloth worn by men, or the
manesita
fastened on the wrist of children. The
manesita
is a little hand of jet, ivory, glass, or stones, set in silver with the thumb, thrust out between the middle fingers. But for want of these, a person apprehending danger, may immediately defend himself by the same position of his thumb. For this reason, whenever the fond mother observes an ugly hag looking stedfastly upon her child, she screams out
festa una siga,
that is, thrust out the thumb, in token of defiance. This kind of superstition is by no means novel; it may be traced as far back as the Romans.
The most prevalent disease in this part of Spain, is the intermittent fever, arising here not from marsh miasmata, but from the quantity of melons which the peasants eat, and from their hard labour, when exposed to the scorching sun.
It is happy for the people they have another source of hope, under the various diseases incident to the human frame, besides the skill of their physicians, a source of hope that never fails them at any season of distress. Thus for instance, St.
Anthony
the
Abbot,
secures his votaries from fire; and St.
Anthony
of
Padua,
delivers them from water; St.
Barbara
is the refuge of the timid, in times of thunder and war; St.
Blaso
cures disorders of the throat; St.
Lucia
heals all diseases of the eyes; St.
Nicholas
is the patron of young women who desire to be married; St.
Ramon
is their powerful protector during pregnancy; and St.
Lazaro
assists them when in labour; St.
Polonia
preserves the teeth; St.
Domingo
cures the fever; and St.
Roque
is the saint invoked under apprehensions of the plague. And thus, in all diseases, under every pressure of affliction, some saint is accessible by prayer, whose peculiar province it is to relieve the object of distress.
The physicians in this part of Spain, are disciples of their favourite Doctor
Piquer,
who denied, or at least doubted of the circulation of the blood. They have laboured under the greatest disadvantages in their education, and want of encouragement when they entered upon practice, receiving little money, and less honour, in the way of their profession. In their medical classes, they had no dissections, no experiments in chemistry, and for botany, they were unacquainted with Linnaeus. These defects will now be remedied. But even in the present day, the fee of the physicians is very small, being only two-pence from the tradesman, ten-pence from the man of fashion, and nothing from the poor. Some of the noble families agree with a physician by the year, paying him annually four-score reals, that is, 16 shillings for his attention on them and their families.
One thing very singular required of surgeons and physicians in this country, before they enter on their profession, is, that they are obliged to swear they will defend the immaculate conception of the virgin. This requisition is the more extraordinary, as that point is not universally agreed on, even between Catholics themselves. To give weight to the sanction of an oath, every country should purge away those which are become obsolete, but more especially such as are universally looked upon as absurd.
In travelling through this province, says
Swinburne,
we are obliged to carry not only our beds, but bread, wine, meat, oil, and even salt; for nothing is to be met with in the inns, but bare walls, and perhaps a few eggs, sold at an unconscionable price. As much is asked for giving house-room, as would purchase a supper and good lodgings in the best inns of most parts of Europe: the mildness of the climate, however, obviates all inconveniencies accruing from a total want of glass, or even paper in the windows; or of a door or shutter that can be fastened close enough to keep out the wind or rain.
On arriving at one of these barns, called
Ventas,
our first care is to set up our beds. The kitchen is generally at one end; the mules stand in the back part, and our apartment is a partition run up against the wall to the street, with a hole or two for lights.
Next our cook takes his stand at the hearth to warm our broth, which we carry ready made, together with the kettle that serves to heat it: if he can procure fuel and elbow room, he tosses up a hash, or some such campaign dish. Sometimes we are lucky enough to have an opportunity of setting our spit, or broiling a chop upon our gridiron, but these are luxuries not to be expected above once or twice in the course of the week.
In this province, there is a new establishment taking place, which does much honor to Count
Florida Blanca,
as contributing not only to the ease and comfort of the traveller, but likewise to the safety of his person. Government is engaged in raising at the distance of every league, a little cottage, with a suitable garden, as the habitation of a
peon caminero,
who is to receive five reals a day, for repairing the highways, and protecting passengers. And for this purpose, he is furnished with all proper implements and with arms. This institution is to be made general through all the provinces.
The government of Valencia is not distinguished from that of other provinces. The Captain General presides in the civil, criminal, and military courts, and the Intendant has the sole authority in matters of finance.
Taxes are heavy in Valencia. Every thing entering the city, even cloths made at Madrid, and silk for the manufacturers, and all commodities without distinction, pay eight per cent upon their value. But the province at large is free from some oppressive contributions, to which others continue subject, paying about 90,000 pounds, as an equivalent for the provincial tents, purveyance and forage for the army, with the royal monopolies of brandy and salt. To this commutation, may in part be attributed the prosperous condition of the whole kingdom of Valencia.
CHAP. VII.
Province of Arragon.
MOST of our modern travel writers, seem to have passed by this province as not worthy of their notice.
Townsend
and
Baretti
are the only travellers of late date, who have given any account of it. Lying among the mountains, other travellers have entered Spain, or taken their departure thence along the sea coasts, either through the kingdom of Navarre, by the bay of Biscay, or by the province of Catalonia, on the Mediterranean side. Indeed, except the city of Saragossa, this province or kingdom appears to have little to attract the notice of a traveller.
It is bounded on the west by Navarre and Castille, to the south by Valencia, to the east by Catalonia; and to the north joins the Pyrenean mountains. Its extent from north to south, is about 160 miles; but from east to west, it does not measure above 100.
The river Ebro traverses the country from north-west to south-east, so as to divide it into nearly two equal parts. In its course, it receives a number of lesser streams. This province is notwithstanding dry and barren, and some parts of it even uninhabited. The soil is for the most part sandy and stony, and the country mountainous, so that where the rivers do not come, or where water is not brought by art, it produces nothing. In those parts, however, that are well watered, there is corn, wine, oil, flax, fruits, and in some places saffron, which constitute the whole riches of the country.
The kingdom of Arragon was re-conquered from the Moors by its own inhabitants, before any of the other provinces. As no prince in Christendom then laid claim to it, the Arragonians chose a king for themselves. Instead, however, of making a noble present of their kingdom to the man whom they first raised to the throne, the Arragonians imposed such conditions on him, as made it scarce worth his acceptance. One of these conditions was, that his authority should be controlled by a magistrate, called
El Justicio,
who, at his coronation, was to address him in these words:
Nos que valemos tanta como vos, os hazemos necestro rey y senor, con tal que guardeis nuestros fueros y libertades: si no, no.
i. e. 'We who think ourselves as good as you, choose you for our king and lord, on condition that you protect our laws and liberties. If not, we choose you not.' Little was the acquaintance of the ancient Arragonians with human nature, in flattering themselves their kings would not shew as much pride as they had done, when it was in their power. Accordingly, when the kings of Arragon became more firmly seated in their throne, they forced their subjects to forbear their irreverential coronation speech, which exposed them to the laughter of their subjects, in the very act of ascending the throne, and made the will of the Justicia subservient to their own. For several ages this magistrate continued, notwithstanding, to have considerable sway, but
Philip
II. contrived to destroy it at one blow, on the following occasion.
Philip,
who was one of the proudest and most cruel men that ever disgraced human nature, had a secretary of state, called
Antonio Perez.
This
Perez
was ordered by
Philip
to put to death secretly an agent of his bastard brother
John,
Duke of Austria. Not knowing how to evade complying with this cruel order,
Perez
caused the agent to be murdered by some ruffians in the streets of Madrid.
The relations of the deceased, having discovered that
Perez
was the perpetrator of this atrocious deed, had him thrown into prison, when his goods were confiscated, and his arms dislocated by the rack, without the king ever taking the least notice of his sufferings. He often expostulated with his majesty by letters, and had recourse to his confessor to prevail on the king to take pity of his torments, and free him from his persecutors, which he could have done with a single word, but it was all in vain. After many years imprisonment and torture, he found means to escape from his prison, and went to Saragossa, where the Justicia, well acquainted with his history, took him under his protection. The people of Saragossa, who knew that
Perez
had acted by the king's express order, approved of the protection granted him by their chief magistrate, and resolved to stand by him at all events. This exasperated the proud monarch, who no longer dissembling the black transactions, resolved on the death both of
Perez
and the Justicia, together with an annihilation of all the ancient privileges, of what he called his rebellious subjects.
Unfortunately, he was able to carry his barbarous scheme immediately into execution. He sent an army into Arragon, too powerful to be resisted by a tumultuous populace. Saragossa was soon taken, and the Justicia fell into the king's hands, who had him executed instantly, without any process, together with a considerable number of the ring-leaders.
Thus an end was put to the power of that magistrate, and the Arragonians deprived of their laws and liberties. They have now been near two centuries, as submissive to their kings, as the rest of the Spanish subjects, and time, which obliterates all things, has at length utterly destroyed the remembrance of their
fueros y libertades.
As to
Perez,
he had the good fortune to escape into France, where he passed the remainder of his wretched life. In that country, he published some books, from which the whole of that cruel transaction may be collected.
Saragossa is the capital of this province. The Phenicians, who were the founders of this city, called it
Salduba.
But a Roman colony being sent thither by
Augustus,
gave it the name of
Caesarea,
or
Caesar Augusta,
of which its present name is a manifest corruption. This city stands in the midst of a very fertile and delightful plain, on the river Ebro, the most considerable river in Spain, which has here two bridges, one of stone, the other of brick. The town is large and handsome, several of the streets are straight, long, and spacious, especially the one called
El Cosso,
where the nobility and gentry resort in their coaches on fine evenings, to take the air, one coach following the other slowly up and down the street in procession. No town in this kingdom, except Madrid, abounds so much in nobility and rich gentry, of whom about 400 it is said, keep their coaches.
There are 17 large churches, with 14 splendid convents, exclusive of lesser ones.
Baretti
remarks, that it is the only city in Europe, which has two cathedrals. Here, says
Townsend,
I forgot all the hardships and fatigues we had suffered on this long journey; nay, had I travelled all the way on foot, I would have freely done it, to enjoy the fight of these cathedrals. That which is called
El Alseu,
is vast, gloomy and magnificent; it excites devotion, inspires awe, and inclines the worshipper to fall prostrate and adore in silence the God who seems to veil his glory; the other, called
El Pilar,
spacious, lofty, light, elegant, and cheerful, inspires hope, confidence, complacency, and makes the soul impatient to express its gratitude for benefits received.
In the centre of this cathedral, there is an edifice, strikingly beautiful. The principal front is a chapel of our lady, who appeared upon this pillar to
St. James,
and afterwards gave him the image which is worshipped at her altar. This image is very small, but covered with a profusion of ornaments, and costly jewels. Over this there is a dome, corresponding to the great dome, under which it stands, serving by way of canopy to the image of the Virgin. The three other fronts of this elegant tabernacle, are, in like manner, chapels. Besides the great dome, there are many smaller domes surrounding it, each with elegant paintings in compartments, the subjects of which are historical, taken from the sacred writings, or from the legends of the saints, to whom the chapels and altars are dedicated.
The wealth of this cathedral is inestimable, in silver, gold, precious stones, and rich embroidery, sent by all the catholic sovereigns of Europe, to deck its priests, and to adorn its altars. Many of these presents being modern, are worthy of attention for their elegance, as well as for the value of their pearls, diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. In a word, whatever wealth could command, or human art could execute, has been collected to excite the admiration of all who view the treasures of this church.
The university contains near 2,000 students, and for their instruction, the doctors constantly residing, are 40, in theology; 20, for the canon law; 36, for civil law; 17, for medicine, and eight for arts. The foundation of this seminary was laid in 1118, on the expulsion of the Moors; but it was not incorporated till 1474, and from that period it has been constantly cherished and protected by the sovereigns of Arragon.
Near this city passes the famous canal of Arragon, designed to form a communication by the Ebro, from sea to sea, between St.
Ander
in the Bay of Biscay and Tortosa, on the borders of the Mediterranean; a distance considerably more than 100 Spanish leagues, or above 400 English miles. This perhaps, is one of the most arduous undertakings that ever was conceived. To make the communication through this whole extent by water, is hardly possible, or if possible, is by no means desirable; because in passing the mountains of Biscay, which are a continuation of the Pyrenees, only from Reinosa, at the head of the Ebro, to the Suanzes, which flows into the bay near St.
Ander,
in the space of three leagues, the fall is 3,000 Spanish feet. The expence of this canal appears enormous;
Townsend
estimates it at between eleven and 12,000 pounds per mile. About 50 miles appear to have been completed when he visited this country, in 1787. I must confess, says he, I never saw any so beautiful or so perfect in their kind, as the locks and wharfs; nor did I ever see men work with greater spirit, or in a better manner. The number of men employed was 3,000, of which 2,000 were soldiers, the others peasants. To the former they gave three reals a day, in addition to their pay, but they work mostly by the piece, and receive what they earn. The canals in Spain are nine feet deep, 20 feet wide at bottom, and 56 at top.
By means of the boats on the Ebro, there is at present an easy communication with the Mediterranean. The town, of course, carries on no very inconsiderable trade. The number of inhabitants is said to amount to little short of 60,000.
The cities having nothing further to attract the attention of our readers, we shall now give some idea of the character of this people, as described by one of their ancient canons. In Saragossa, as in all other great towns, wicked people are not rare, but they are much more rare than at Madrid, and the great Seaports. The air of the court, is alas, pestilential to many; nor does that of the sea, prove much better. And the reason is evident; but at court and at seaports, men ride in a manner, on the whirlwinds of interest and ambition, which two passions are by our moralists aptly termed,
los dos cuernos mas grandes del Demonio,
'the Devils two biggest horns,' but in our inland province, the greatest part of the inhabitants are rustics, employed in the innocent occupations of the field, who, living by the product of uninterrupted labour, cannot be so vicious as those whom court favour or commerce often enriches with rapidity. Throughout this province, life is passed in the greatest simplicity and uniformity. People generally rise early, and continue their work the day through, with scarce any intermission. But as soon as the sun is gone down, both sexes join every where to dance and sing with such enthusiasm, that they appear, when beginning to grow warm, as if bereft of their senses; and this practice is so general, not only in this, but in most of our provinces, that were it possible to see the whole kingdom at once, when day-light has disappeared, much the greater part of its inhabitants would be seen briskly shaking their heels to the sound of their instruments and voices, old men and little children not excepted, provided they have but sufficient vigour in their legs.
I know, says the venerable canon, that the French have long reproached us with pride and enmity to labour. They tell each other of the swords worn by our peasants, even when following the plough, and how solicitous they are to shew them, that they may be thought gentlemen. We are laughed at for hanging even the walls of our cottages with our genealogies, and that our most insignificant Hidalgos should think themselves as nobly descended as the king. But it is not true that our low people hang their walls with their pedigrees; it is not true that our peasants wear swords; nor is it true that our Hidalgos of any class, think themselves as noble as the king.
As to our pretended aversion for labour, all will work who can, in the same proportion as the people of other countries. Should they cease to work, they would soon starve, as our rivers run not with milk and honey, any more than the rivers of other countries. It may be objected, there are spacious tracts of desert land in this province, but if those lands lie uncultivated, the fault is not to be attributed to the inhabitants. How can we cultivate land where there is no water? water is the great parent of vegetation; without it, both sun and land become nearly useless for the purpose of agriculture: but water cannot be created by men; and where we have none, the land must lie just as it is. This province abounds more in streams than New Castille, it is therefore more fertile. Catalonia is still more so than this province is, as the nearer we advance towards the sea, the running streams become more numerous, and have a sufficient declivity to facilitate branching them out artificially, and spreading them wherever it may be judged proper. Will it be concluded from such accidental circumstances, that the Catalans are more industrious than the Arragonians, or the Arragonians more addicted to labour than the New Castillians.
I repeat it again, adds this venerable Canon, that the Arragonians have as few vices, as any people on the earth. Gluttony and ebriety are words to which they annex the most hateful ideas. They are not idle when they can avoid it; they are not such liars as the low people among the French; they are not addicted to stealing, and have the reputation throughout Spain, of making the best servants: they are not quarrelsome, but live in peace and affection with their neighbours. One proof of their not being vicious, is their early marriages. Nor do they swerve easily from conjugal fidelity, when once bound in wedlock. Even the mule-drivers, who are incessantly travelling to Madrid, are true to their wives, and it is their chief ambition to throw into their laps a piece of gold, earned by their journey, the moment they re-enter their houses.
I will not say that this character is applicable to all the lower classes throughout the kingdom, and that some of the numberless
arieros
cannot get drunk, swear profane oaths, and have something to say to every wench in the
Posadas.
Those of Valencia and Galicia are said to be very wicked, and as such, we see them often represented upon our stage. But allowance must be always made for notions of this kind, which often have their source in prejudice, pique, and other causes, not easily traced to their origin.
The Galicians and Valencians speak dialects sounding very disagreeably to the ears of the Castillians, and of us, says the Canon, who speak nearly Castillian; and it has been remarked, that the difference in speech, is often sufficient to raise an antipathy between the several parts of a nation, and induce one to depreciate, censure, and hate the other.
Having now pretty fully described the cities, manners, and customs of the different provinces, which formed part of the ancient kingdom of Arragon, we shall enter upon those which formerly made part of the kingdom of Castille, beginning first with the province of New Castille, in which is Madrid, the present seat of government, and the capital of the whole kingdom.
CHAP. VIII.
Of the Province of New Castille.
CASTILLE is the principal and most opulent kingdom in all Spain. It is generally divided into the
Old
and
New;
the former having been recovered from the Moors, long before the latter. New Castille, of which in regard to the order of situation, we shall speak first, is by some called also the kingdom of Toledo, being the centre of the monarchy, and the residence of the monarch. It is divided on the north by a chain of mountains from Old Castille, and a like chain divides it also eastward, from Arragon and Valencia. On this side it borders upon Murcia. To the south it is likewise separated by a chain of hills from Andalusia; and westward, bounded by Estramadura. Its greatest extent from east to west, is about 180 miles, and its length from north to south, above 200. The Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir, have already been said to receive their sources in this province. The first two run from north-east to south-west, quite through it, and greatly improve its natural fertility. The other rivers of note in this province, are the Xucar, which makes its way through Valencia into the Mediterranean; the Xarama, which falls into the Tagus and the Guadarama, which likewise loses itself in the same river below Toledo.
There is a cinnabar mine in the southern part of this province, which, according to
Bowles,
in his Natural History of Spain, is the richest of the kind yet found, the most curious for its properties, and one of the most ancient that has ever been worked. The church, and a great part of the village of Almadan, near which it is situated, and containing upwards of 300 houses, were built from the produce of the cinnabar, and all the inhabitants subsist by the mine. The exhalation of the mercury is not dangerous to men, animals, or plants, as has generally been alledged; the galley-slaves sent to work the mine, are robust and healthy, though several of them are wicked enough to feign being ill of the palsy. Each of these slaves costs the state 20 pence a day, and there is not a labourer in Almaden, who has not offered to do more work for half the price. Five or 6,000 quintals of mercury are annually produced from this mine, a part of which is used in extracting silver from the mines of Mexico.
New Castille was formerly governed by Earls, the last of whom dying without male issue in 1029, bequeathed his dominions to his sister, married to the King of Navarre, who raised this province to a kingdom.
Ferdinand,
King of Leon, succeeded to it on the demise of
Henry
of Castille, and in 1217, both kingdoms became united in his person; but the last and permanent union of the kingdoms of Castille and Arragon, was by the marriage of
Ferdinand,
Prince of Arragon, with
Isabella,
Queen of Castille.
Having now given a general view of this province, we shall treat of its principal cities, which are Madrid and Toledo, together with the royal palaces, situated in the environs of the former, as likewise of the private life, manners, and customs of the inhabitants, and of whatever else we can find worthy of notice in the different writers, who have visited Spain.
Plan
of the CITY of
MADRID.
References
1
B
Palace
2
N
T
Oven
3
D
's D'
4
The
's
5
The
6
St . Th
7
Spanish Guard Quarters
8
St .
9
The
10
St .
Convent
11
St .
12
S.
13
14
St . Joseph
15
Quarter
16
St . Fer
17
The V
y
18
19
The
Post
20
St .
21
Don Juan of
22
The Holy Ghost Chapel
23
St .
24
St .
25
St .
26
27
for
28
of St . Joseph
29
Hotel
30
Seminary for Noblemen
31
The
32
Prince
Chapel
33
St . Mark
34
Church
35
St .
House
36
St .
College
37
The
38
of
39
St .
40
French Hospital
41
of
Chapel
42
43
St .
44
Convent
45
St .
46
47
The
48
St . Anthony
49
Trinity
50
St .
Trinity
51
The
of
52
53
Hospital
54
St L
55
School
56
St .
of
57
of
58
59
Church
60
St .
61
St . Andrew
62
St .
Church
63
64
The
65
St .
66
St . Marys Church
67
The
68
New Palace
69
St
70
St . John Church
71
St . James
72
St .
73
St .
74
75
St .
76
77
St . Gerome
78
St .
79
of
Church
80
The
81
St . Martin
82
St .
83
St . Thomas
84
Imperial College
85
N.D. of the Mercy
86
St . Philip
87
St . Ann
88
The Conception
89
Magdalen Chapel
90
Chapel
91
St . Francis
92
Crown Prison
CHAP. IX.
Of the City of Madrid.
MADRID, the capital of the kingdom, was long only an obscure town, belonging to the Archbishops of Toledo; but while so many flourishing and illustrious cities, enjoying every advantage of situation, have sunk into deserted villages, this town built in a sterile and ungrateful soil, has become one of the finest cities in Europe.
On approaching Madrid, nothing announces to the traveller that he is near the capital of the Spanish monarchy. The inns within two leagues of this city, are equally dirty and destitute of all conveniences, with those in every other part of the kingdom. The soil appears barren, and without either trees or verdure. But on arriving at the banks of the Manzanares, a magnificent stone bridge, built by
Philip
II. notifies the vicinity of the royal residence. A French traveller has made himself very merry at the expence of this bridge, and cracked some jests on its disproportion to the water that runs beneath. But Frenchmen, like other people, will easily catch at opportunities of being censorious in foreign countries. The fact is, that the Manzanares becomes at times a considerable river, by the sudden melting of the snow on the neighbouring hills, and is in winter often half a mile in breadth.
Philip,
therefore, acted very properly in building a spacious bridge over it, and ridiculous are those who pretend to ridicule him on this account. This small river, (the Manzanares) says
Bourgoanne,
runs at some distance under the heights, upon which Madrid is situated. It is almost shallow enough for carriages to ford over. It has, however, two great bridges, that of Segovia, and that of Toledo. It was of this latter, that among other witticisms, it was pleasantly said,
that fine bridge only wanted a river.
In passing through Spain, several others are met with, upon which the same observations may be made, the reason of which is, that Spain is intersected in almost every direction, by long chains of mountains, whose summits, notwithstanding the heat of the climate, are frequently covered with snow. The rivulets and little rivers descending from their sides, have usually but a small stream of water, because droughts are frequent in the provinces through which they run; but when abundant rains, or the melting of the snow increase their little streams, their beds are more extended from their not being very deep, and carrying with them a large quantity of sand, and according to these circumstances, although they do not often occur, the dimensions of the bridges are calculated. They are solidly constructed, owing to the impetuous torrents that occasionally come down, and their apparent disproportionate length, is to obviate the evils which might arise from their overflowing.
This city stands in the centre of a large plain, terminated on all sides by mountains; it is situated in 13° 49′ 30″ longitude, of the isle of Ferro, and 46° 26′ latitude. The first king that made any long abode in Madrid, was
Henry
IV. Before his reign, this was but an insignificant place, with a small castle for the convenience of princes that came to hunt in the environs, which were then as woody as they are now naked. Its situation on a rising ground, overlooking many leagues of country, open on every side to a wholesome circulation of air, and abundance of good water, induced the Emperor
Charles
V. to build an ample palace here, which he intended to make his chief residence, as he thought the climate best adapted to his constitution. The sovereign once fixed at Madrid, the nobility soon abandoned their hereditary castles and houses in other cities, to follow the court.
If we except the royal palaces, says
Swinburne,
there are few buildings worthy of attention, nor do I believe there is in Europe a capital that has so little to shew, as Madrid; having never been the see of a bishop, it has of course no cathedral, nor indeed any church, that distinguishes itself much from the common herd of parishes and convents. Allowing some few exceptions, we may safely pronounce the outward architecture of them to be barbarous, and their manner of ornamenting the inside, as bad as that of the worst ages; most of them were erected or retouched during the term of years that elapsed between the middle of the 17th century, and the year 1759, a period in the history of Spain, when all arts and sciences were fallen to the lowest ebb of depravity; the effects of a total degeneracy of manners, and want of public spirit. These vices in the political system of the three last princes of the Austrian line, could not be immediately removed on the accession of another family. The wars that shook the very foundations of their throne, during the first ten years of this century, kept all polite arts groveling in the dust; and when they again raised their heads, and ventured to court the favor of their sovereigns, there seems to have been a total want of able professors to second their efforts. No mad architect ever dreamed of a distortion of members so capricious, of a twist of pillars, cornices and pediments so wild and fantastic, but what a real sample of it may be produced in some or other of the churches of Madrid. They are all small, and as poor in marbles, as they are in pictures. Their altars are piles of wooden ornaments, heaped up to the cieling, and stuck round with wax lights, which more than once have set fire to their churches. The convents, which may be said to possess any good pictures, are those of St.
Pasqual,
and the bare-footed Carmelite Nuns. The former has a fine
Titian,
a capital
Guerchino,
and many other pictures by the most esteemed Italian masters. In the sacristy of the latter, is a numerous collection of paintings, by various hands, many of which are of superior merit. The tombs of
Ferdinand
VI. and his Queen
Barbara,
in the church of the visitation, are almost the only sepulchral monuments of any consequence.
As to the churches in Madrid, says
Baretti,
they are not in general so magnificent, as one might expect to find them in a country so much renowned for the piety of its inhabitants. Most of them are strangely decorated with ornaments, not admitted into the churches of other countries. Their walls are frequently covered with small and trifling works of the pencil or chissel, hung up without any order or symmetry. In that which belongs to the
Padres de la Merced,
there is a large drawer, containing a variety of toys and baubles, the gifts of persons repenting their attachment for trifles; and presented as an offering to a small waxen image of our Saviour in the drawer. Amongst other singularities, is a large fragment of a plum-cake, presented as they say, by a lady, who thought herself too fond of sweet-meats; and a muslin apron given by another, who caught herself in a fit of pride, the first time she put it on. These ladies fell upon this expedient, to atone for their childish vanities.
The most magnificent church in Madrid, is that of the Salesian Nuns. This church, with its fine convent, was built by Queen
Barbara,
remarkable for little else than her fondness for music, and her devotion. This passion for music, caused her to bestow little short of 4,000 pounds a year, on the celebrated
Farinelli,
who was her chief favourite for many years, and to whom, among other things; she bequeathed all her musical instruments, and one of the largest collections of music, that was perhaps ever made. This is the only church in Madrid, in which the ornaments are not overloaded and childish. The altars, here, are not, as in the other churches, decked out with nosegays of natural and artificial flowers; nor are they hung round with little cages of canary birds, which keep singing all day long, to the no small edification of those who go to hear masses in the morning, or to receive their benedictions in the evening. There are, however, many costly decorations in this church; the most remarkable, exclusive of the royal monument, is a silver lamp, hanging by three long silver chains, which altogether, are said to weigh above 350 pounds. In the sacristy, are some surplices of very fine Flanders lace, which are supposed to have cost near 1000 pounds each.
The churches in Madrid, have neither pews, benches, nor chairs. Their floors are covered with straw mats, upon which the men and women kneel promiscuously, without any distinction; whether they be grandees, or coblers, duchesses, or washer-women. The men will often stand during the mass, but the women sit negligently on their heels, holding their rosaries in their hands, and telling their beads in a whispering voice, and with a most rapid motion of their lips.
At intervals, says
Townsend,
I walked about the town, to obtain some general idea of it, before I descended to particulars. In my own mind, I divided the whole into three portions, corresponding to three periods, easy to be distinguished. The most ancient, is nearest to the river Manzananes, with narrow and contracted streets, crooked lanes, and blind alleys, like those still visible in London, but more especially in Paris, where no extensive conflagration hath consumed the rude monuments of art, erected by the remote progenitor, who inhabited the infant city. To the north and to the east of this, as we remove further from the river, the streets are wider, and the buildings affect some degree of symmetry. This portion, including the
Plaza Mayor,
or square, which, in its day, must have been a striking object, terminates at the
Puerta del Sol.
But when
Philip
II. removed his court, and Madrid became the capital of his vast empire, the great nobility erected palaces beyond the former limits, and the
Puerta del Sol,
is now the centre of the whole.
It is curious to trace the origin of cities. The shepherd pitches his tent, or builds his mud-wall cottage by the river side, because he cannot afford to sink a well; but man, being a gregarious animal, others, for the comfort of society, or mutual protection, resort to the same spot, and build as near to him as possible. Cottages increase, tillage succeeds, manufactures follow, and the inhabitants advancing in number and wealth, wish to enlarge their habitations; but the ground being occupied, they have no other choice, but to raise their houses higher. Whilst inhabiting the humble cottage, they never complained of the want of light or of air, but now that they shut out the light from each other, they wonder their ancestors should have cramped themselves thus for want of room.
Madrid has 15 parishes, between seven and 8,000 houses, 150,000 inhabitants, 66 convents, 16 colleges, 18 hospitals, five prisons, and 15 gates, built of granite, most of which are elegant.
Almost all the streets in the court part of the town, are straight, wide, clean, and well paved. In walking about the town, says
Twiss,
I observed the names of the streets, painted on the corner houses; the houses numbered, and lamps before them, the same as in the streets of London. The paving is as regular and neat, as it is possible to conceive, and the streets kept so clean, that none are to be met with more so, not even in the cities of Holland: whereas ten years ago, Madrid might have vied with Edinburgh, in its former state for filth.
The principal street, is the
calle de Alcalá,
which is broad enough for 20 coaches a breast, and of a very considerable length. There are also some very beautiful squares, particularly the
Plaza mayor,
which deserves notice for its spaciousness and regularity, and the elegant and lofty houses it contains. It is 1536 feet in circuit. The houses, of which there are in this square, 136, are five stories high, ornamented with balconies, the first of which supported by pillars, forms a piazza round the square, where the inhabitants may walk under cover.
There are 30 public fountains in this city, most of them are magnificent, though ornamented in an ill taste. The water in all of them is excellent. It was this purity of the air, and excellence of the water, which induced
Philip
II. and his successors, to fix their residence in this city. It should have been premised, that notwithstanding there are 15 gates, this city has neither fortifications, ditches, nor even walls. Its form is rather circular, and the circumference about six miles.
The king's new palace, is perhaps the grandest and most sumptuous of any in Europe. It is situated on an eminence, commanding a delightful prospect of the river Manzananes, and the country beyond it. At a distance, from its standing alone, and on an eminence, without either terrace, park, or garden, it has rather the appearance of a citadel, than a place of residence for one of the most powerful monarchs in the universe. But this first impression is soon dissipated as we approach nearer. I have seen, says
Twiss,
the palaces of the kings of England, France, Sardinia, Naples, Prussia, and Portugal, those of the Pope, the Emperor, and several German Princes, and indisputably give the preference to this. It is impossible, says
Townsend,
to view it without the most exquisite delight. The palace presents four fronts, each of 470 feet in length, and 100 feet in height up to the cornice, inclosing a quadrangle of 140 feet. These fronts are relieved by numerous pillars and pilastres, and over the cornice is a balustrade, to hide the leaden roof. The north front has five stories, besides the entresolo, and underground apartments.
Within the balustrade on pedestals, are placed a series of the kings of Spain, from
Ataulfo,
to
Fernando
VI. The plan is somewhat singular. On the principal floor, is a suit of apartments, large and elegant, which communicate all round the palace, receiving light from the fronts, and inclosing rooms for the domestics, which have light from a spacious gallery within. This gallery runs all round the quadrangle, over an open portico or piazza, and is covered by a terrace.
The foundation of this edifice, which is all of white stone, was laid in the year 1737, three years after the old palace had been consumed by fire, and to prevent the like accident in future, the whole is upon arches.
There is no palace in Europe, fitted up with so much true royal magnificence. The beauty and grandeur of the upper apartments are astonishing. The cielings are
chef d'oeuvres
of
Mengs, Corrado,
and
Tiepolo.
The richest marbles are employed with great taste, in forming the cornices and socles of the rooms, and the frames of the doors and windows. What enhances the value of these marbles is, their being all produced in the quarries of Spain, from whence it is the opinion of a learned writer, that ancient Rome was hence supplied with many of the precious materials, that enriched her porticos and temples. At least, it is certain that the bowels of the earth in Spain, contain most of those species of marbles, alabasters, &c. that are to be seen in the ruins of the mistress of the world. Porphyry is found near Cordova; the finest jasper near Aracena; the mountains of Granada furnish a beautiful green; those of Tortosa, a variety of brown marble; Leon and Malaga send alabaster; Toledo and Murviedro abound in marble of different colours; and most parts of the kingdom afford some specimens of jasper, besides the amethyst and its radix, for which Spain is celebrated above most countries.
The leading feature in this palace, is the audience chamber,
sallon de los reynos,
which is a double cube of 90 feet, hung round with crimson velvet, and which, with its sumptuous canopy and painted roof, makes a most magnificent appearance. The ceiling, painted by
Tiepolo,
represents the triumph of Spain; round the cornice, the artist has placed allegorical figures of its different provinces, distinguished by their productions, and attended by their several inhabitants in their provincial habits; these form a most uncommon picture, and curious set of
Costumi.
The walls are incrustrated with beautiful marble, and all around hung with large plates of looking-glass, in rich frames.
It is not possible to view the apotheosis of
Hercules
in the hall of conversation; and of
Trajan,
in the king's dining-room, without feeling the most singular pleasure and delight. In the execution of these pieces,
Mengs
exerted all his powers, and seems to have found no difficulty in uniting ease with elegance. In these two delightful pictures we cannot readily determine which to admire most, his designs, his lights and shades, his colouring, his invention, or his composition. In the antichamber is a capital picture by
Velasquez,
representing
Philip
III.
Philip
IV. their two wives, and
Olivarez,
all on horseback. "I doubt, (says
Townsend
) whether five such horses, so perfect, and so full of animation, were ever seen together; the horse of
Philip
IV. rises from the canvas, and seems so much like real life, that, if properly placed, an acute eye might be easily deceived. There is also in the audience-chamber, a descent from the cross, by
Mengs,
which, according to connoisseurs, is his best production. "The colour of the dead body (says
Bourgoanne
) has been frequently criticised.
This Christ,
say they, seems to be of stone." "I was induced, (adds the above writer) to think the same, until one day, accompanying some foreigners who adopted the criticism, I heard one of them exclaim with transport, in commendation of the truth of the colouring. 'Surely, (said he, in a low voice)
This painter must have seen many dead bodies, to have been able to imitate them so well.
' The author of the above reflection was an eminent surgeon, who, till that moment, had not opened his lips on the subject. The critics were silent, and we recollected the ancient proverb,
"Ne sulor ultra crepidam."
The greatest part of the large and capital collection of pictures in this palace, which it would be tedious to enumerate, have been successively brought over, in former times, by the Spanish Governors of Naples, Flanders, and Milan, which accounts for their surprizing number. These pictures afterwards fell into the hands of the kings of Spain; and, were they now collected and hung up, the collections in the Luxemburg and Palais Royal galleries would make no figure in comparison with them. Nor must we omit, to the disgrace of our own country, that there are in this king's possession, some belonging to the unfortunate
Charles
I. which were vilely sold to Spain by his rebellious subjects. Besides the above collections, the Emperor,
Charles
V. invited over to Spain, the illustrious
Titian,
who has left, both in Madrid and the Escurial, more capital pictures than any of his at Venice.
The royal chapel belonging to this palace is said to be more magnificent than that of Versailles. In the organ-loft there are 70 different missals, containing whatever is sung there throughout the year, by a very numerous band of the king's musicians. These missals are all as large as the largest atlas, their leaves of vellum, all nobly bound, and rolling on brass pullies, fixed to their bottoms, that they may easily be taken from their shelves and replaced. What contributes more particularly to the decoration of this chapel, are 16 columns of black marble, extending to the frieze.
The court-yard of the palace is surrounded by a grand portico, and so very spacious that 50 coaches might wheel round it at the same instant without much obstructing each other. On the outside of the great gate, and along the principal front of the edifice, are placed, on high pedestals, eight pedestrian statues, some of which represent those among the ancient Roman emperors, who were natives of Spain. These statues are of that size called heroical.
At the end of the square is a large edifice, not sufficiently seen, which contains a curious collection of ancient and foreign arms, arranged with great order, and carefully preserved. This is called the
armeria,
or arsenal. The most remarkable curiosities here, are neither scymeters set with diamonds, nor complete sets of armour, but those of ancient American warriors: The most conspicuously placed is the armour of
Montezuma.
Some suits of Spanish armour are embossed with great nicety. The temper of the sword-blades placed in this armory is quite wonderful, for they may be lapped round the waist like a girdle. The art of tempering steel in Toledo was lost about 70 years ago, and the project of reviving it was one of the favorite schemes of the late king, who has erected proper works for it on the banks of the Tagus.
This palace was built by
Sacchetti,
an
èleve
of
Juvara,
the famous Sicilian, who left so many specimens of his art in and about Turin. The reason of its having been erected on
Sacchetti's,
and not
Juvara's
plan, is an anecdote, singular in its kind, and not much known. In the year 1734, after the ancient palace was burnt down, the king wanting another, and being told
Juvara
was the most esteemed architect of the age, sent for him. On
Juvara's
arrival at Madrid he was ordered to make a model. While he was employed on it, the king's second wife, who managed her husband as she pleased, began to think of a war, that she might procure a settlement for her son
Charles,
in Italy. Instead, therefore of having the several millions destined for this purpose, laid out in building, she determined they should be applied to prosecuting her own plans.
This scheme of the queen's, it may readily be imagined,
Juvara
was not to be made acquainted with; nor was he politician enough to guess at it. He hastened to compose his model, the queen herself affecting to solicit the completion of it.
The model took time in forming; but, when it was brought to the king for his approbation, his minister, who was entrusted with the secret, represented to his majesty, that
Juvara,
had contrived a habitation too small for a Spanish monarch, and insisted on the architect giving a plan more proportionate to the grandeur of its future inhabitants.
Philip
was the dupe of
Patino's
(the minister's name) flattering objection, especially as the queen declared for the same opinions. Nor was
Juvara
himself displeased to hear it was their majesties' intention he should go to the utmost of his powers, and plan a palace more proportionate to his own great abilities, and the monarch's treasures.
Within three years
Juvara
produced another model, so very grand that he was sure no objection could be raised against it, on account of its size or magnificence, and he had the momentary satisfaction to hear himself praised by the whole court, for the loftiness of his ideas; but, on calculating the expence, which amounted to more than 30,000,000 sterling, the queen and her confidant raised the obvious objection, that the finances of the king could not compass so much. A third plan was therefore to be thought of, that kept equally distant from the littleness of the first, and the greatness of the second.
To remonstrate would have been useless; but, while he was thus busy, the war, that had been long hatching, broke out, the Spanish doubloons began to flow into Italy, and
Juvara,
with his plans, were neglected. Scarce was he suffered to open his lips about building, when he appeared at court. If he dared to shew his drawings to the king,
Patino
raised so many difficulties, that the poor architect at last died of a broken heart, probably to the great joy of the crafty minister, who had long spirited him up to be very grand in his second model.
Soon after
Juvara
's death, the king, who was bent on having a palace, enquired if he had left any disciples capable of making use of their master's designs. The king of Sardinia (it was answered) had two; and
Sacchetti
being reckoned the best, he was sent for to Spain, where he made the model of the present palace, which was approved; and, as the war was approaching to its end, soon after begun.
The finishing and fitting up of this palace, has, in all probability, saved the capital from ruin, by fixing the court to this spot. The king intended to have removed it for ever to Seville and the southern provinces, after the sedition in Madrid, when the populace rose in consequence of the order for cleaning the streets, and prohibiting slouched hats, and large cloaks. His surprize, resentment, and indignation, would certainly have induced him to quit for ever so barbarous a metropolis, had not his minister, unwilling that so much money should be lavished to no purpose, in improving the palaces in Castille, prevailed on his royal master to conquer his anger, and alter his determination. It is very remarkable that, during the greatest ferment of the sedition, all parties retired, as if by mutual consent, about dinner-time, to take their usual nap or meridian, after which they returned to the charge with fresh vigour, and redoubled fury, resumed their clamours and repeated their outrages. The military force finally quelled the tumult, and the king carried his point. Every blackguard now loiters about with his hat pinned up triangularly; but the moment he gets out of town, and beyond the bounds of the proclamation, indulges himself in flapping it down on all sides.
The palace of the
Buen Retiro
is a pleasant retreat, situated upon an eminence, at the extremity of the city; is a vast pile of buildings, very ancient, and verging to decay. It contains some spacious apartments, in which there still remains a few good pictures. "But the three things (says
Townsend
) which gave most satisfaction were, the theatre, the grand saloon, and the equestrian statue of
Philip
IV. This statue cast by
Pedro Tacca,
from a painting of
Velasquez,
and said to weigh nine tons, is supported by the hind legs alone. I never saw, nor can conceive any thing more perfect, or which appears so animated as this prodigy of art. The theatre is vast, and opens into the gardens so as to make them, upon occasion, a continuation of the scene. Here
Ferdinand
VI. frequently amused the public with operas, with which his queen was so extravagantly fond.
The great saloon, called
El Salon,
with its antichamber, painted in
fresco,
by
Jordano,
remains a monument of his taste, invention, judgement, and imitative powers. In the principal compartment of the roof is represented
Hercules
giving the golden fleece to
Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy.
In a subordinate compartment,
Pallas
and the gods are seen subduing the
Titans;
answering to which, the majesty of Spain appears ruling the terrestrial globe. The rest is filled up with allegorical figures finely expressed. The antichamber contains the conquest of Granada. From the great saloon we go to the garden, by a little oval cabinet, covered entirely with looking-glass, in the ceiling of which is represented the birth of the sun, with people of all nations worshipping the rising deity, whilst the priests are engaged in offering sacrifices. This likewise is by
Jordano.
In one of the apartments, seldom shewn to foreigners, are models of strong places; among these, the two most striking are Cadiz and Gibraltar.
To a stranger, the situation of Buen-retiro, appears preferable for a royal residence, to that in which the new palace stands; but there may be, perhaps, objections which do not present themselves to the transient observer. The gardens of this palace are extensive, and have a pleasing variety of wood and water. They are at present open to the public. The late monarch established a china manufacture in them, which as yet, strangers have not been permitted to inspect. Its productions are to be seen no where, but in the palace of the sovereign, or in some Italian courts, to which they have been sent as presents. Some particular kinds of inlaid work, not much known in Europe, are likewise carried on there.
This ancient palace likewise commands a public walk, which has long been famous in Spanish comedy and romance: at first, indeed, these alone gave it celebrity. In the place itself, there was nothing remarkable; its reputation arose from what passed in it. Measures were then concerted to elude the vigilance of a mother, or jealousy of a husband. The courtiers escaped perhaps from the presence of a monarch, came thither to watch a rival, prepare a plot, or disconcert an intrigue. The proximity of the palace, the obscurity and inequality of the ground, were all favourable for these purposes. The
Prado
was a rendezvous, equally convenient for ambition and malignity, but more especially for love. Those who appeared there, had generally some sinister design, or were encountering some hazard. But
Charles
III. by levelling it, planted it with trees, admitting more light into the alleys, ornamenting it with statues, and vases, and providing water to allay the dust, has now made it a most elegant walk, which may be frequented in all seasons, with safety and pleasure. It forms a part of the interior of the city, and is in length nearly two miles. Several of the principal streets terminate here. That of Alcala, the widest in Europe, crosses it, runs by the side of the gardens of the Retiro, and terminates at the gate of the same name, which, as we have already observed, is one of the finest pieces of architecture in the capital, and built in the late reign, in 1778.
The inhabitants from all quarters resort hither, on foot, or in carriages, to meet and breathe beneath the shade of long alleys, an air freshened by water, spouted from the fountains, and embalmed by exhalations from the fragrant flowers. The concourse of people is frequently prodigious. There may be sometimes seen between four and 500 carriages, filing off in the greatest order, amidst an innumeraable crowd of spectators: a spectacle at once a proof of great opulence and population.
Townsend
notices a very singular ceremony he saw practised on the walk. The coaches, says he, were numerous, and the walls were crowded; all was in motion; when suddenly about eight in the evening, on the tolling of a bell, I was much surprised to see all motion cease; every coach stood still, every hat was off, and every lip seemed to utter prayer. This, I afterwards found to be the custom all over Spain. If the affections of the heart correspond with the external signs of piety in Spain; and if the moral conduct answers to the affections of the heart, this people must be the most heavenly minded, and the most virtuous upon earth. But all is not gold that glitters; and I had soon an opportunity of forming a conjecture, that all who thus moved the lip, were not among the warmest friends of piety and virtue. When the prayer was over, the coaches began to move slowly on once more, but soon after this, went briskly off, and the multitude dispersing, left a number of young women, attended by young men, who from that time seemed to be more at ease, yet kept within the bounds of decency.
Swinburne,
in his account of this famous walk, says, it is situated in the shallow vale, between the Retiro and the town, which has not the least suburb of any kind belonging to it. Its length and breadth are great, the avenues drawn in an intelligent, noble style; the foot-paths wide and neat; the iron railing and stone seats, done in a grand and expensive manner. The view from this walk is, as it should be, confined; for the winds are so sharp and boisterous, and the landscape so horrid all round the city, that no place of public resort, like this, could be comfortable, unless it were shut in from all distant views, and sheltered by hills from the blasts that sweep over the high lands of Castille.
To the west it has the town, the three principal streets of which, as we have already remarked, terminate in the Prado; there are three noble openings, excellently paved, and clean even to a nicety; indeed, so are most of the streets, since the edict for paving and cleaning them. The foreigners residing here before that period, shudder at the very recollection of its filth. Some of the natives, indeed, regret the old stinks and nastiness, pretending that the air of Madrid is so subtle, as to require a proper mixture of grosser effluvia, to prevent its pernicious effects upon the constitution.
Till of very late years, there were no privies in Madrid: but the king, determined to cleanse the place, ordered that privies should be built in every house. The physicians remonstrated against it, saying, that the smell softened the air, and deprived it of those noxious vapours, that would be injurious to health. This, however, would not do; but lest their food should imbibe these noxious vapours, the people, one and all, placed their privies by the kitchen fire-side.
The extremes of heat and cold are astonishing in this place; and the winds so searching, that all the Spaniards wear leather under waistcoats to preserve their chests, for they pervade every other kind of cloathing.
The botannical garden, adds not a little to the embellishment of the Prado; it was formerly on the road, leading from Madrid to the Castle of Pardo; but the late king removed it a few years since, to the side of the Prado, and surrounded it with a low enclosure, by which it is ornamented, without being hid. This monarch endeavoured to make it one of the most precious collections of the kind, by laying under contribution, all the vegetable kingdom of his dominions, some part of which, it has been long said, is continually warmed by the rays of the sun, which in such different soils and climates, must alone produce every kind of tree, shrub, and plant, which grows on the bosom of the earth.
While viewing the Prado, says
Bourgoanne,
I have frequently given the greatest latitude possible to this idea. I have even extended it to the animal kingdom. I have allotted in imagination, a space, which the botanical garden leaves vacant by the side of the walk, to a destination certainly singular in Europe, and which the monarch of Spain only is capable of carrying into effect. I divided it into as many parts, as this sovereign has principal colonies under his dominions; in these, I settled, in supposition, a family of Peruvians, another of Mexicans, another from California, another from Louisiana, another from Paraguay, from Buenos Aynes, the coast of Caracas, from Porto Rico, from Cuba, from the Canaries, and the Philippines. All to preserve their peculiar dress and manner of living, to erect a simple habitation upon the model of the one they had quitted; and to cultivate the plants brought from their own country; so that surrounded by these pleasing illusions, they might still suppose themselves in their native soil. Here the Mexican would be seen beneath the shade of his own fig-tree, shaking it and gathering the precious spoils, which colour our European garments; there the inhabitant of Guatimala, would cultivate his indigo; and he of Paraguay, the herb which constitutes his principal riches; the native of Soconusco would attempt to naturalize his valuable cocoa-tree in a foreign soil; the Peruvian, accompanied by the docile animal, which partakes of his labours, feeds, and clothes him, would, in concert with the Luconian, endeavour to introduce the same cultivation they had been accustomed to at home. Thus the exulting inhabitant of the metropolis, without going from the capital, might pass in review, as if delineated on a map, all the colonies to which his sovereign gives laws. The transported colonist would become accustomed to an exile, which every thing would concur to render pleasing; and his fellow citizens separated from him by immense sea, on being informed of the benevolence and magnificence of their common monarch, would form a higher idea of his power, pride themselves upon being his subjects, and become more attached to his government.
Such a project may be considered as romantic, yet the king of Spain has entered upon one of the same kind, which proves his zeal for the advancement of the arts and sciences. In the street of the Alcala, is a large building, in which he has established a cabinet of natural history, which already contains one of the completest collections in Europe, in metals, minerals, marble, precious stones, corals, and marine plants. The collection of the king of Spain, says
Townsend,
is truly magnificent, but far from being well chosen, or well arranged. For intrinsic value in silver, gold, and precious stones, perhaps no cabinet can equal it.
The specimen which most attracted my attention, says the above writer, was a large rock, containing 40 emeralds, in the form of hexagonal prisms, some near an inch diameter, and one inch and an half in length, and many of them of the finest water, without the least appearance of a flaw.
The animals are beautiful, and in high preservation.
The cabinet of natural history, is accessible to all; there is no need to wait for tickets; but at the appointed hours, any person who is decent in his appearance, is admitted to walk round the rooms, and examine what he pleases, as long as the doors are open. If he is peculiarly devoted to one branch of natural history, he is not hurried away from that by the gaping multitude, and compelled to spend the allotted portion of his time, in apartments which contain nothing to his purpose.
The foundation of this collection was laid by
M. Davila,
but it is said, that after he had published his much admired catalogue, the best of the specimens were picked and culled, and the refuse only carried to the king, who made the purchase, and appointed him first director of his cabinet.
This science is almost new in Europe. Sir
Hans Sloane
led the way in England,
Buffon
followed in France, and
Davila
has brought up the rear. It is but of late years, that the sovereigns of Europe have taken it under their protection. England set the example, and Spain has followed it.
The same edifice that contains this cabinet, and which with the custom-house built also by
Charles
III. constitutes the principal ornament of the street of the Alcala, is the place of meeting for the academy of the fine arts; a circumstance which occasioned the inscription on the front of the building, a motto equally happy and just.
Carolus III. naturam & artem sub uno tecto consociavit.
"Charles III. associated art and nature under one roof.
The honor of instituting this academy, is, howeever, due to
Philip
V. but it has received great encouragement from his two successors.
This academy of the arts, like that we have described at Barcelona, is open to the whole world, and every thing provided at the king's expence. There are three other academies. The Spanish academy, founded in 1714, in imitation of the French academy, the first object of which, was the compilation of a dictionary of the Spanish language, published in six volumes, folio. The academy of history, which owes its origin to a society of individuals, the object of whose meetings was to preserve and illustrate the historical monuments of the kingdom of Spain. The academy of medicine is held in no great esteem.
If the pleasing arts are cultivated at Madrid, the most useful of all, that of beneficence, is not neglected. Charitable foundations, worthy to be models to every nation, are found in that city. There are three hospitals, which, in the course of the year 1785, received 19,437 patients. The principal or general hospital for men, as it is called, has been lately rebuilt. It contains no less than 5,000 iron beds, distributed through several large rooms, and long galleries. It is a rule here, to receive every one who comes at any hour of the day or night; nor is any solicitation requested to obtain admittance; there are even porters belonging to the hospital, whose only business it is to go and fetch every sick person who sends for them. And at the gate of the hospital, there is always a physician in waiting, to enquire into the complaint of every patient who comes, and to order him immediately into the proper ward accordingly.
As I stood at the gate, says
Baretti,
an old man was brought there in a kind of covered sedan. This physician lifted up the head of the chair, and put this blunt question to him:
Tiene usted gallico?
"Have you the foul disease?" It surprised me not a little, to hear the shameless sexagenarian answer in the affirmative with the clearest tone of voice, and the greatest tranquillity of countenance imaginable. Wandering about the different apartments, I could not but take notice of their great cleanness. I enquired of several sick men about the treatment they met with, and was pleased with their answers. Among the several articles of diet, each patient is allowed a large dish of chocolate every morning, by way of breakfast, with a slice of bread, or a sweet biscuit. This appears a remarkable singularity. Nor are they stinted in point of food, when they begin to recover, except the physicians are very positive in their orders to the contrary.
It is not the custom here, to support any hospital by voluntary contributions, incessantly collected from the people, as in England. In this country, each hospital has an income arising from lands and other kinds of property; Various
confradias
have an eye over them. The principal nobility do not disdain to be members of these societies. They visit the hospitals by turns, audit the accounts, and take care that no part of the income is embezzled or mismanaged. The church grants some indulgencies for these pious deeds, and this seems to be all the recompence they wish for their trouble.
Among these
confradias
there is one called
La Santa Hermandad, "the holy brotherhood;"
or, more commonly,
La confradia de Pan y Huevos, "the brotherhood of bread and eggs."
A number of its members, preceded generally by some considerable nobleman, ramble about the streets of Madrid, every night, in order to collect the houseless of both sexes, who lay themselves down to sleep under the porches of churches, or the entrances of houses. The
Santa Hermandad
take up all those they find in this pitiable situation, carry them to some hospital to sleep, and give them, the next morning, a penny loaf with a couple of eggs for their breakfast; from which practice is derived their appellation. If these poor are in health, they are dismissed, if diseased they are kept till cured. Were something of the kind adopted in London, where the houseless poor are very numerous, it would be a most beneficent institution.
It may easily be supposed that the abovementioned hospital is endowed with a very considerable revenue. It is said to amount to 40,000 doubloons, or £30,000 sterling.
There are neither hackney chairs nor hackney coaches in Madrid. A foreigner therefore cannot ride about the town upon the same easy terms as he may in London, Paris, and many other great cities. He who keeps no carriage must either walk or hire one for the day, which may be had for about 30 reals. All carriages are here drawn by mules, and the coachmen might with more propriety be termed postillions, as they ride on the mule, instead of sitting on the coach-box, a practice which certainly obstructs the sight less, through the front glass of the carriage.
The custom of driving with mules instead of horses is universal; and for this reason, because the horses in Spain are not so well able to resist the parching heats in summer, and the severe blasts in winter, when the snow covers the hills on the sides of the Escurial. Some of the ambassadors, who would not conform to this custom, have had reason to repent of this singularity, as no one pair of horses would last them the year through, whether they had Spanish or foreign horses.
No person is allowed to drive about Madrid with more than four mules to his carriage. The king only has six, and sometimes eight, but then he is seldom at Madrid. In the environs the nobility are allowed to travel with fix, but very few are permitted to enter the gates with them. The great officers of state, and the foreign ministers, only, have this privilege, and these are obliged to drive strait home from the gate at which they enter.
There are few beggars in this city, and those few do not wander about, but remain fixed to one particular spot; where, however they do not much importune passengers with their supplications, extending only their hands, with a craving look. If any thing is given them it is well; if not, they never open their lips.
If a person wants to go a few leagues off, he may hire a
caleffin;
that is, an open chaise, drawn by a single horse. The driver runs on foot by the side of the chaise; and when tired, gets up behind; but on foot or behind, he never ceases hooting and whipping the poor jade, to make it trot. In this manner they will make them go about six miles an hour.
At Madrid the hotels are good. They have no
able-d'hote
but every one dines in his own apartment, where he is served with two courses, each of four or five dishes, with a dessert, and one such course for supper, with plenty of good wine, for which he pays seven livres and an half a day, including lodging; but, if he eats no supper, then his dinner and his two rooms will cost him only five livres, or four and two-pence English.
Like the French, the Spaniards drink their wine at dinner; but, when they have finished their dessert, and taken coffee, they retire to their couch.
When they retire from the
fiesta
they get into their carriages, to parade up and down the Prado, never going faster than a walk. As they march slowly in one direction, they look into the coaches which are returning in the other, and bow to their acquaintances every time they pass.
At the close of the day people say the usual prayer; then wish each other a good evening, and begin retiring to their houses, when they take their
refrescos
of chocolate, with biscuits, and a glass of water.
When properly introduced into a Spanish family, a stranger is told at parting, "Now, Sir, you are master of this house;" but the extent of the grant must be judged of by your own natural sagacity; because, such is the politeness of a Spaniard, that he makes use of this expression when nothing more is meant than that you are at liberty to call upon him; accordingly you see many retire before each meal, or drop in after it; but, when it is taken in the full extent, the grant means dinner,
refresco,
supper; any or all, whenever it may suit you to partake of them.
The people of fashion in this city are very obliging to strangers, when once introduced to them; nor do the common people give bad language, or angry looks to strangers, as is but too common in England. As to the Spanish grandees, they seldom mix either with foreigners or natives, who are not of the same rank with themselves. The foreign ministers, in particular, scarce ever mix with any but the great officers of state; from whence it may be concluded, that it is not the custom for the Spanish nobility to keep open houses, like those of almost every other capital in Europe. Yet some of them are very rich, nor can they be taxed with avarice, living in general with great splendour; but the mode of spending their money is different from that of other countries, and generally consists in keeping a numerous court, within doors, of chaplains, secretaries, pages, and a great number of livery-servants, together with a very considerable number of equipages. Besides, very few of the grandees ever dismiss a servant once established in their families, unless for some very enormous offences, he and his family remain pensioners as long as they live. There are some who pay near £10,000 sterling a year, in wages and annuities to servants.
"The grandees (says
Swinburne
) are diminished, by a series of distempered progenitors, to a race of pigmies, which dwindle away for want of heirs, and tends gradually to a union of all the titles and estates upon the heads of one or two families. There is one nobleman who has no less than 19 grandeeships centered in his person. Though they all stile themselves
de premiere classe,
as it were, by way of distinctive pre-eminence over others of a lower degree; yet I believe (says the above writer) no second or third class exists; and it would be a gross insult to suppose any of them of an inferior rank to the rest of the
corps;
some difference may, perhaps, be made in the degrees of popular respect paid to the descendants of heroes, who made a figure in the Spanish annals, and such grandees as have been honoured with that dignity in latter times. There are several noble families, who, by their antiquity, have a right to the honour of grandee, but, as the king has never ordered them to be covered, they are stiled
casas agravias,
"injured heroes."
The king calls the grandees
Cousin,
when he writes to them. When they receive audience of the Pope they are allowed to sit; they cannot be arrested for any crime whatsoever, without an express order from his majesty. They alone have the privilege to drive with four mules to their carriage within Madrid, whilst the king is there. Among them all titles are equal. Dukes, marquisses, or counts have no precedence the one before the other. The grandees, both in conversation and in writing to each other, always use
thee
and
thou,
but to their inferiors they make use of the ordinary stile.
In the folio book, entitled
Creacion y Privilegios de los Tilulos de Castilla,
printed in Madrid, 1769, 43 privileges are annexed to the dignity of grandee, among which, besides those abovementioned, are the following: They may never be put to the torture; they may have four footmen and four torches behind their carriage, as may also dukes (earls and marquisses are allowed but two); they are permitted to have a throne, under a canopy, in one room in their houses; this privilege is, however, granted to various other dignities, specified in the book:
The Spanish women are, in general, little and thin; few are strikingly beautiful, but almost all have sparkling black eyes, full of expression. It is not the fashion in Spain, as in France, to heighten their
eclat
with paint. They are endowed by nature with a great deal of wit and lively repartee; but, for want of the polish and succours of education, their wit remains obscured by the rudest ignorance and most ridiculous prejudices. Their tempers having never been fashioned by polite intercourse, nor softened by necessary contradiction, are extremely pettish and violent. They are continually pouting for something or other, and put out of humour by trifles.
Most of the ladies about court are the reverse of handsome, and do not seem to have any ambition of being thought clever or accomplished; not one talent do they possess, nor do they ever work, read, write, or touch any musical instrument, their
cortejo,
or gallant, seeming their only plaything. "The accounts given me, (says
Swinburne
) of their manner of living, in their family-way, as soon as they come out of the convent, and before they have fixed on a lover to fill up their time more agreeably, is as follows: they rise late, and loiter away the remainder of the morning among their attendants, or wear it out at church in a long bead-roll of habitual unmeaning prayers; they dine sparingly, sleep, and then dress, to saunter for a couple of hours on the Prado. They are never without some sort of sugar-plum, or high-spiced comfit, in their mouths. As soon as it is dusk they run to the house of some elderly female relation, where they all herd together over a pan of coals, and would not for the world approach the company that may occasionally drop in; it would throw them into the greatest confusion, were they requested to join in the conversation. The hour of the assembly passed, they hurry home to their maids, and, with their help, set about dressing their suppers, by way of amusement.
As people of fashion seldom assemble to eat at each other's houses, this is no doubt one of the circumstances which contributes to their reputation for sobriety. They are likewise little acquainted with the innocent and healthful recreations of the country. But few among them are fond of the chace, of which the monarch and his family seem to possess the exclusive privilege. Country amusements, in short, seem to have no attractions for the Spaniards. Their country-houses might easily be numbered. Among the many rich individuals who inhabit the capital, there are, perhaps not ten who have a country-retreat.
END OF VOL. XIX.