THE Habitable World DESCRIBED.
Inscribed by Permission to His Royal Highness Frederick DUKE OF YORK, &c. &c.
HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE
LONDON: Published as the Act directs, by the Author. No . 62. Wardour-Street, Soho.
1788.
THE HABITABLE WORLD DESCRIBED, OR THE PRESENT STATE OF THE PEOPLE IN ALL PARTS OF THE GLOBE, FROM NORTH TO SOUTH; SHEWING The Situation, Extent, Climate, Productions, Animals, &c. of the different Kingdoms and States; Including all the new Discoveries: TOGETHER WITH The Genius, Manners, Customs, Trade, Religion, Forms of Government, &c. of the Inhabitants, and every thing respecting them, that can be either entertaining or informing to the Reader, collected from the earliest and latest Accounts of Historians and Travellers of all Nations;
With some that have never been published in this Kingdom;
And, nothing advanced but on the best Authorities.
WITH A great Variety of MAPS and COPPER-PLATES, engraved in a capital Stile, the Subjects of which are mostly
new,
and such as have never yet been given in any English work.
BY THE REV. DR. JOHN TRUSLER.
VOL. V.
LONDON.
Printed for the AUTHOR, at the
Literary-Press,
No. 62, WARDOUR-STREET, SOHO; and sold by all Booksellers.
M DCC LXXXIX.
AN ACCOUNT OF THE TUNGUSIANS, &c. From STELLER, KRATSCHENINIKAFF, MULLER, COOKE, and Others.
DR. PALLAS not having travelled so far north in Siberia, as to explore the countries of the Tungusians, Youkaguirians, Tschoucktsches, Koraiks, Kurilians, Kamtschadales, and the Eastern islanders, which are also parts of the Russian empire; I will supply the deficiency from
Steller, Muller, Cooke,
and others, who have treated upon the subject.
Steller, Muller,
and
Kratscheninikaff,
have furnished us with the best accounts we have at present; but other travellers, though not literary men, have given some accounts, equally true and interesting.
Of the different nations which occupy this country, the Youkaguirians are similar, in language and manners, to the Jakutes; the Tschouktsches resemble the people of the northern isles; the Kurilians, and the people of Kamschatka, are like those of the Eastern islands; and the Koraiks, resemble the Tschouktsches, and Kamtschadales. But as much as any of these participate in language, and way of living, there is still a characteristic difference. We will speak first of the Tungusians.
Tungus,
in Tartar, implies a hog; and the Tartars probably gave them this name, by way of contempt
and to express their natural filthiness. Their desarts extend, eastward, from the Jenisei, beyond the Lena, as far as the Amur, and the eastern sea. From south to north, they inhabit the country, from the 53d degree of north latitude, to the 65th. As they are a peaceable people, they admit various, other nations to live among them, particularly the Eastjaiks, Samojedes and Jakutes. Some of this tribe belong to the Chinese, and wander about the river Amur, and the district of the Mandshours. Their country, in general, is marshy, and interspersed with mountains and forests, except about the Amur; and the climate is so cold, that they can clear the land but in very few places.
The Eastjaiks of the Jenisei, gave the Russians notice of these people, in 1607. Many expeditions were sent against them; but they were not wholly subdued, till 1657.
The Tunguse, like all other eastern nations, divide themselves into races; each race composed of several distinguished families, known by the name of their founders. Those who can prove their origin, in a direct line from the founder of the family, are esteemed noble, and called
Oterikan.
From these nobles, they elect their saissans, or chiefs, who are confirmed by the government of Russia.
In 1766, they were numbered in order to be taxed; and were found to consist of 117 races, which all together comprised 29,647 boys, or males, that paid tribute, besides, about 1,700 tents, or families, that roamed beyond their own desarts, into neighbouring territories; and there are also many yet unrolled; of course, we may say, that the Tungusians form one of the most numerous nations of Siberia: for if we add three to each family, for their wives and children, it makes up the number of those registered only, near one hundred and twenty thousand people.
The Tunguse are of a middling stature, and well-made; their faces not so flat as the Kalmucks: they have a fresh complexion; small, sharp eyes; small, thin nose; lank, black hair, and very little beard; some men have none at all. Their senses of seeing and hearing, are so acute, as to be wonderful; but their organs of feeling and smelling, are less acute than ours; and their voice is rather hoarse. Their young women are well-made, pleasing figures, very sprightly and modest; but their old women are frightfully ugly, full of wrinkles, smoke and filth, with eyes as red as fire. We seldom see a white-headed man or woman, even in the most advanced, old age; they are vigorous, straight and upright, and so full of vivacity, that a stranger would not suppose them old.
In constitution they are sanguine, and in temper frank; always appearing as they are. Lying is, to them, so absurd a thing, that they are never guilty of it; of course, they are never suspicious, nor are they obliged to affirm any thing upon oath. Theft and fraud are held so very infamous among them, that on the smallest reflection, or reproach, of that kind, a challenge ensues, and they immediately proceed to fight, with bows and arrows. Content with the necessaries of life, they want no other, keeping to the manners and customs of their ancestors, and never forming any novel scheme. Not anxious for the morrow, they chearfully divide the last morsel with the first comer; and the gaiety of conversation, is never lost in the poverty of the host. Though they are often obliged to fast many days without food, they are never dispirited. The only case in which they look forward, is in marriage; and in this they are so prudent, as seldom to be unhappy; for, added to the provision they make, they are so indifferent to the world, that they are neither nice or delicate in love-matters; nor are they inclined to libertinism. Within their sphere of knowledge, they are attentive, diligent, and of good capacity; learning foreign languages with care and expedition; and almost acquainted with every tree and stone within the tracts they are accustomed to. They are good horsemen, good hunters, and dextrous at the bow. They will track their game, by the pressure of the grass, or moss, and even by marks on the ground, though so light as not to be discovered by others. They are resolute, and daring, to a great degree; great numbers fall in duels; and they will, unarmed, attack a bear, if they meet one; yet, resolute as they are, they cannot calmly suffer extreme indigence, wounds, loss of friends or fortune. But with all this, society has no charms with them; they go singly to hunt, and when they chance to meet in the vast desarts, they feel no social pleasure; and, when relations part, they do it without regret. The rich, as in every other country, have a greater number of wants and cares, than those who are poorer, and are less liberal and generous; however, the wealthy are all ready to pay tribute, for such as are old and infirm; and this is done in skins, or furs.
Their language is a dialect of the Mandshourian, easy to pronounce, and not unpleasing to the ear. It contains but few letters, and is written in characters easier drawn than penned; but the Russian Tunguse have neither schools, nor books; their learning being confined merely to tradition. In a case of dispute, they will rather submit it to arbitration, or fight it out with arrows, than refer it to a magistrate, or
Darouga,
and be judged by laws they are unacquainted with. Duelling is forbidden; for which reason numbers disappear, without any one being able to tell what is become of them. As a proof of their good order, there is not a single Tungusian, among the criminals, employed in the mines of Nertschintskoi.
When
Valdeyak,
or man-slaughter, is the consequence of a quarrel, it is not a capital offence; the killer is, however, flogged on the back with sticks, and obliged to maintain the family of the person killed; yet he is never reproached, but considered as the braver for it. A certain number of strokes is the punishment of theft, and an obligation to restore the thing stolen, or its value, and the thief is ignominious for the rest of his life. For rape, or seduction, the men only are punished. The gallant is forced to purchase his fair one, at a certain sum, or be flogged. If a man, in poor circumstances, deflowers a girl, either rich or handsome, the relations will often privily shoot him, and put him to death. Married people are allowed to decide their domestic quarrels by fighting; but if either is wounded, the person giving the wound is whipped. If a married couple find they cannot live happily together, they separate. Tungusian women are not more exact in conjugal fidelity than the men; of course, gallantries and intrigues pass often unnoticed.
All accidental marks, and defects of the covered part of the body, and a redundancy of hair, are attributed to the influence of devils; and though either is seldom the lot of a Tunguse girl, yet, where it happens, it is the cause of irony, and there are examiners into these defects, who pronounce a sentence of divorce accordingly.
In matters of litigation, which is not often, oaths are enjoined, of which there are three kinds. In one, the accused person takes a knife in his hand, brandishes it towards the sun, and pronounces these words:
If I am guilty, may the sun send disease into my body, as mortal as a stab of this knife would be!
In another, the criminal is forced to climb up a sacred mountain, repeating, as he mounts,
May I die, if I am guilty; or, may I lose my children and my cattle; or, I renounce for ever, all success in hunting and fishing, if I am guilty!
But the strictest oath, is, when the accused is made to drink some blood of a dog, whose throat they have cut, and impaled near a fire, and burnt; the person taking the oath, scatters pieces of his flesh about, saying:
What I say, is as true as that I drink this blood; if I lye, may I perish, burn, or be dried up, like this dog!
The Tunguse live by pasturage, hunting and fishing; the rein-deer furnishes them, as it does the Laplanders, with every necessary of life. The opulent have flocks, 1000, or more, in number; the poor, about 20. Such being their manner of life, they seldom remain in the same place, longer than three days, wandering in large bodies; and when they traverse their immeasurable wilds, they separate so much from each other, that one would suppose, they were distinct families. Independent of their flocks, their wealth is but small; consisting only of their cloaths, huts, dogs, and instruments for hunting and fishing; and all these are not worth five rubles. Their poverty, however, gives them no concern; for, having but few wants, they have fewer cares.
EASTERN ISLANDERS FISHING.
Their methods of hunting, and catching animals, are so various, and the number of gins, snares, and self-shooting bows, so great, that it is dangerous to travel in these parts, without a Tungusian guide, acquainted with the marks where snares are laid. As these people commonly hunt alone, they are exposed to various accidents, and often lose their lives by a fall from some cliff, or by heavy stones, from the mountains, rolling down on them. Some are carried away in crossing rivers, in the rapidity of the stream, and others torn to pieces by wild beasts. Should an unfortunate sportsman chance to break a limb, and fall down between two rocks, so that he cannot disengage himself, he lingers, till Death, by hunger, relieves him, with but one hope, that of a wild beast's putting a speedier end to his sufferings.
None of the Tunguse occupy themselves in any handicraft work: a blacksmith is the only exception; and his business is carried on in so small a scale, that he can carry all his materials in a bag under his arm. Their women are employed in domestic offices; in making of cloaths, dying, tanning, and drying of fish. They are expert, also, at dressing furs, and making shammoy leather; but their great excellence is, in staining white furs, and embroidering their cloaths with goat's hair, and thread; made of the nerves of animals.
Their arans, or huts, are made of 20 poles, about 14 feet high, formed into a cone, joined at top by hooks, and spreading over a space, at bottom, from 14 to 17 feet in diameter. The inside is hung with birch-bark, boiled, and sewed together, like linen, and fringed within, with slips of the same bark. The fire-place is in the middle, and the smoke issues out at top. They leave a space on one side, to enter, and cover it with a birch-bark curtain; so that their jurts, or huts, resemble a soldier's tent. In winter, they remove their tents, under some hill, for shelter; but, in summer, they are erected near the water-edge.
Their furniture consists only of a small, iron kettle, wooden, or bark vessels, leathern bottles, a cradle, a pair of snow-scates, a sledge, drawn by dogs of the Pomeranian breed, boxes, covered with skins and embroidered, spades to dig up roots, about one foot and a half long, a little bent, and pointed with iron, and a few implements for hunting and fishing. Their omko, or cradles, are boxes about 18 inches deep, made of birch-bark, and lined with skins, without a cover. At one end, the bottom and sides form an obtuse angle, somewhat like an armed chair, in which the child is supported by a back-board, through which a hole is made to prevent it from hurting its head; and a small idol is hung over the child's head, as a tutelary genius. Every cradle has a leather strap, by which it hangs at the mother's back, is hung to the saddle of a horse, or suspended in the tent or on some tree.
The dress of the Tunguse is much like that of the Jakutes, but very different from that of most other eastern nations, which, according to Mr.
Fischer,
Professor of the Academy of Sciences at Petersburg, who was among that people some time, consists of a fur-habit, which they wear next the skin, short trowsers, and long stockings, or boots, for they answer both purposes, drawn up tight and smooth to the leg, and fastenened to the trowsers. These stockings are soled and embroidered, ornamented with glass beads, and fringed. They fasten their breeches with a string, which runs through the waistband, to which is tied, in part, a small leather apron, cut into a great many slips, like fringe. The coat-sleeves are close, the skirts reach no lower than the knees, the borders are edged with fur, and the collars are embroidered, two inches broad, and fringed with a white hair, about four inches deep. Sometimes, the seams are covered with glass beads, striped with blue and white paint. They wear no girdle, but fasten their pipes and tobacco-pouch, flint, steel and knife, to the waistband of their trowsers. Under their coat they wear a waistcoat, that does not close entirely on the breast, but fastens with thongs: and, to defend their bosoms from the cold, they wear, in winter, a kind of breast-plate, neatly ornamented with glass beads, and covered with long dyed hair, or goat's skin, four inches broad, and seven or eight long. This hangs round the neck, and reaches to the stomach. Some wear, over this breast-plate, in hopes of good fortune, an iron idol, representing a human figure, or that of a beast, or bird. In winter, they wear, over over these, stockings, or boots, buskins that reach half way the leg, made of white rein-deer skin. To give them a savage appearance, they trim their cloaths with fur; and many fix large tufts of black, white, or red hair, 15 or 16 inches long, at their hips, and delight in seeing them float in the air. In summer, they go bare-headed; but, in winter, wear a cap made of the skin of the head of some horned animal, a rein-deer, goat, &c. and so contrive it, that the ears and horns of the animal being left on, are set erect on the head. They tie their hair close behind, and let it hang down loose on the back; and where they tie their hair, they have a bunch of beads (The women dress exactly like the men). Many of the men mark their faces with blue dots, in irregular figures; as do the Americans, and Greenlanders. This ornament is esteemed a beauty; and mothers imprint them on their children, by drawing a thread, blacked with soot and spittle, under the
epidermis,
which at first inflames the part, but leaves an indelible, blue mark. In summer, as a protection from the flies, they hang a bunch of horse-hair over their shoulders; and every one carries the soft, shining skin, taken from a drake's head, with which they wipe the small flies from their eyes. (See Pl. p. 125, Vol. 4.)
The youth, of both sexes, when well dressed, make a handsome appearance; and their easy carriage and manners, and open and chearful countenance, add not a little to their figure. Such of this people as lead a shepherd-life, dress still better, and shave their heads, as do the Mongols, leaving a lock of hair on the crown, which they braid into a tress.
The Tunguse are not delicate in their eating. All kinds of animals, even carnivorous ones, dead carcases, if not too much putrified, weasels, mice, all come alike to them; and they search for and eat, a variety of bulbous roots, as onions, lilies, and such roots as are stored up by the mice of this country. They make provision, for the winter, of fish frozen, dried or smoked, and flesh, prepared in a similar manner; and stow it away in pits, dug under ground, or small huts, like pigeon-houses, built on the top of the stump of a tree, 13 or 14 feet from the ground, as do the Laplanders, that it may be out of the reach of wild beasts.
They do not eat raw meat, like the Samojedes; but they boil it in water, without salt; or roast it, on a wooden spit. They have a dish, called
Sillo,
made of flesh and wild roots; a kind of blood-pudding, called
Schiloukta,
made in the gut of an animal, without cleaning it; and as to fat and suet, they will eat it undressed, as it comes from the animal itself. But the most disgustful of all their viands, are, the
Silama,
and
Oedégal:
these are the after-births of women; which, when roasted, is called
Silama,
when boiled,
Oedégal.
This is a delicacy reserved for the father: the woman, herself, tastes of it; but none are invited to partake of it, but their best friend. Water is their common drink; but, in spring, they drink the sap of birch-trees, or infusions of certain herbs, rose-leaves, and gooseberry-leaves. In summer, they chew
Niouta,
which is the gum of the larch, in order to keep their mouth moist; and sometimes they chew and smoke tobacco, but never to intoxication. They, like other Tartars, distill a spirit from sour milk; but never drink it in such quantities as to inebriate; for their life is a state of sobriety.
They are not great tatlers; but the little they say, is honest, and spoken from the heart. They are always chearful and contented, and not easily provoked. If any one person is in want of any thing, and another has it, he asks for it without reserve; and where the person asked, has it to give, it is never refused; of course, a refusal gives no offence. They cannot boast of refinement, or delicacy of sentiment; but they are warm in their attachments. When young folks meet, after years of absence, it is without emotion; and, when friends part, perhaps never to meet again, it is apparently without regret. But it is otherwise, with persons advanced in life; they will, if meeting a friend after a long absence, fly into his arms with such transport, as to change colour, and be black in the face; and, in this extasy, will sometimes kiss. The women, however, have more sensibility than the men; they are miserable at the death of their husbands; and it is sometimes with difficulty that a young widow is prevented from destroying herself. Their fondling terms are,
Niki, Outa, Amenikan, Omimikan, Kattoun;
in English, friend, child, little papa, little mama, good old man. Terms of anger are,
Bouni,
and
Tsschilkour;
that is, thief, and devil.
They can fast for a long time, a day or two together; but when they do eat, will do it voraciously. They have, however, no fixed hours for meals; but take their food, when they are hungry, squatting on the ground.
Cleanliness is not one of their virtues. They clean each other's head, and swallow the vermin; and parents clean their children's noses, by sucking them. They never wash themselves, nor clean their dishes. If even they wipe them, it is with the first piece of fir that comes to hand. It is natural to conceive, that people, in such a state of nature, will not be very nice with respect to decency. Children often go about naked; even adults, of both sexes, will sit round a fire, naked, all but their trowsers, and will often go abroad so; but marriageable girls are seldom seen without some covering. Wrong as this may appear to be, to a civilized people, custom renders it innocent; and, as every adult is married, the consequences are not so bad, as might otherwise be expected.
Polygamy is allowed among them; some having five wives, but the generality have but one. Being eager to be their own master, boys marry at 15, and girls before 12. They purchase their wives, and the price is from 20 to 200 head of cattle; and the bride, as a dowry, brings with her a fourth of the value of the price given for her. When the marriage-contract is made, they cohabit without ceremony; and, on going into their new house, make an entertainment for their friends. Their diversions, on this occasion, consist in singing ditties, and relating strange adventures. They have both love-songs, and songs of the chace; and they dance, to the sound of the
Kour,
a kind of violin made of a board, and three strings. The men amuse themselves with running races, activity on horseback, and shooting at a mark.
The life of these nomades, is perfectly natural, temperate, and independent; despising all luxury, taste, and refinement. Money they have none; but a little coined iron. Their happiness is confined to good health, a number of children, and living to an advanced old age. Few Tungusian women, however, have seldom more than four children; owing, probably, to their laborious manner of living, and suckling their children, till they are four years of age. They bring forth with ease, and, in a few days after, return to their employ; but are not reckoned pure, till after four weeks. The general names of boys are,
Schéminga Ourkoundou Lawinka Atounga;
those of girls,
Alanmour, Oyok, Jounguilbi:
and these names are given, by friends, without any ceremony.
Desirous as they are of living to a good old age, they seldom pass seventy. Sore and inflamed eyes, from their smoky huts, are the attendant of old age; but they are free from other disorders, except that of the scurvy. The small-pox has appeared among them, and committed great ravage; but this is seldom. Their priests are their physicians; and their cures, simples, sacrifice, and magic. Of their witches, I have spoken before.
On the spot where a man dies, there is he buried, except he has expressed a wish to the contrary; and the body is interred, dressed in his usual cloaths, with some tobacco-pipes, and sundry utensils, arms, &c. but priests, and some others, desire not to be buried at all, but exposed to the air. In this case, they are covered in the coffin, with stones and boughs, and are hung up near the place, where the body of some schaman has been placed, being all of that sect. After the interment, each one brings provision, and drink, to the deceased, and places it on the grave; and this rite, they call,
Schitourap.
The YOUKAGUIRIANS consist only of about 30 wandering tribes, that occupy the lower parts of the Yama, eastward of the Lena, to the borders of the frozen sea; and are rated, in tribute, at 964 males. They resemble the Tungusians, in idolatrous worship and dress; and the Samojedes, in manner of living.
Steller
says, They are fond of intoxication; and smoke tobacco, and chew the intoxicating mushroom for that purpose; nay, they will, with care, preserve the urine of those who have got drunk with them, in order, by drinking that urine at some other time, to enjoy the getting drunk themselves. These mushrooms do not heat the blood, nor increase the circulation; but have such an effect on the nerves, that many, during the time of intoxication, are all over of a tremble; and become, in their old age, quite stupid. But, under the influence of these vapours, they fancy themselves rich, and of gigantic stature; and, whilst lying on their backs, sing merry songs, prophesy, and rave about futurity, till they fall asleep. With some, these mushrooms produce phrenzy, and downright madness.
A DESCRIPTION OF KAMTSCHATKA, From BHERING, PAWLOUTZKY, STELLER, KRATSCHENINIKAFF, KING, and Others.
CHAP. I.
Of the Country, Climate, Productions, and Animals.
KAMTSCHATKA is a peninsula, formed by a chain of rocky and barren mountains, running to the south south-west of that part of the continent of Siberia, inhabited by the Koraiks: is bounded by the Eastern ocean, the gulph of Penschinskoi, and the sea of Oghotzk, between 52 and 61 degrees of north latitude, and extending to the 174th degree of longitude. The soil is stony, so destitute of the smallest piece of fertile land, and so cold, even in summer-time, that it will not of itself produce feed for cattle; nor is it fit for cultivation. To an European it would be deemed uninhabitable; yet it is the place to which Russia transports its greatest criminals.
In 1690, the Russians first heard there was such a place; six years afterwards, they took possession of it. In 1727, an expedition to this place was undertaken by
Bhering,
but not completed till 1741. Major
Pawloutsky,
at the head of a detachment, traversed great part of this country, and conquered it in 1738; since which time it has been visited by others.
Mr.
Steller,
who resided some time in this country, and seems to have taken great pains to gain information on this subject, is persuaded, that the true Kamtschadales are a people of great antiquity, and have, for many ages, inhabited this peninsula; and that they are originally descended from the Mongols; for they have no tradition of having migrated from any other country, they believing themselves created, and placed on this very spot, by their god Koutkou; that they are the most favoured of all his creatures, the most fortunate of beings; and that their country is superior to all others, affording means of gratification, far beyond what are any where else to be met with.
The Russians have a few settlements in this peninsula, which they call Ostrogs. These are no other than a building, surrounded by a pallisado, but sufficient to protect their trade, and guard the banished criminals. To these places they are obliged to send the necessaries of life, from great distances, by horses.
Kamtschatka is plentifully furnished with rivers; but none are navigable, except one; and this will carry vessels 150 miles up from its mouth.
The natural severity of the climate, must be in due proportion to the general sterility of the soil; of which it is probably the cause. In May, 1779, the whole face of it was covered with snow, from six to eight feet deep. On the 6th, Captain
King
says, it snowed, with the wind at north-east; on the 8th of May, at noon, the thermometer stood at 32°; on the 12th, the snow melted; and, in the beginning of June, the low lands were clear. On the 15th of June, the thermometer had never risen higher than 58°; nor the barometer than 30° 4′. In August, all sorts of vegetation seemed to be in its best state of perfection. In September, the weather is changeable, but not severe; the greatest height of the thermometer was 65°, the lowest, 40°; the barometer's greatest height, 30°; its lowest, 29° 3′ In the beginning of October, the tops of the hills begin to be covered again with snow. Their summer, then, ought to be considered from the middle of June to the middle of September. October may be considered as an autumnal month; and, from thence to the end of May, winter: no spring.
Thunder and lightening is here not very common; but their winter is very severe, and they have often dreadful hurricanes of wind and snow. Major
Bekm,
who was the Russian governor of Kamtschatka, in 1779, says, That the winter of that year was so cold and inclement, that all intercourse between the inhabitants was entirely stopped; every one being afraid to stir out, even from one house to another, for fear of being frost-bitten. This extreme cold, in so low a latitude, can only be accounted for, from its being situated to the east of such an immense uncultivated tract of country; and from the prevalence of the westerly winds, blowing over so extensive and cold a continent. The extraordinary violence, and impetuosity of the winds, is attributed to the subterraneous fires, the sulphureous exhalations, and the general volcanic disposition of the country.
This peninsula abounds in volcanoes; three of which have, for some time past, been subject to eruptions. One of these, in the beginning of 1739, vomited forth, from its summit, such a whirlwind of flames, as to reduce the neighbouring forests to ashes.
Their country is said to contain numerous springs of hot water.
Kratscheninikaff
says, There are very extra-ordinary pits, or wells, at the bottom of which the water is seen to boil, as in a cauldron, with prodigious force and impetuosity; at the same time, a dreadful noise issues out of them, and so thick a vapour, that a man cannot be seen through it.
On the banks of their navigable rivers, says the same author, is found plenty of roots and berries, which, in some measure, supply the want of corn. Near the head of this river, corn would grow, as well as in other places of the same latitude. Several trials of summer-corn have been made, in which both barley and oats have succeeded. Vegetables have also been tried; but the most succulent plants, produce only leaves and stalks. Cabbages and lettuce never come to perfection; and peas will bloom till late in harvest, and not bear. Turneps and radishes thrive well; and the grass, especially near the rivers and lakes, runs up near six feet high, and grows so fast, that it is sometimes cut three times in a summer. Cattle, in such places, are, therefore, large and fat, and give plenty of milk all the year. Places, where the grass grows, are not so much covered with snow, as the bogs and swamps. There is plenty of wood in this country, fit for building houses and shipping. Mr.
King,
who was there in May, 1779, says, he travelled over the snow, to a well-wooded f
at, where the snow was thawed, but the trees were just budding, and the verdure of the whole scene was strongly contrasted with the sides of the surrounding hills, still covered with snow; that the soil appeared capable of producing all common vegetables, and ye he did not see the smallest spot cultivated, nor were any of the inhabitants possessed of any kind of cattle. Yet, in another place, he says. If I may judge of the soil, by what I saw of its vegetation, I should not hesitate in pronouncing it barren in the extreme. Neither in the bay, nor in the country I traversed, nor in any of our hunting expeditions, did I ever meet with the smallest spot of ground, that resembled what is called, in England, a good green turf, or that seemed as if it could be turned to any advantage, either in the way of pasturage, or other mode of cultivation. The face of the country, in general, was covered with stunted trees, having a bottom of moss, mixed with low, weak heath. The whole bore a more striking resemblance to Newfoundland, than to any other part of the world I had ever seen. However, he admits, in one place, that he saw three or four stacks of sweet and very fine-looking hay.
Of the trees, says Captain
King,
which fell under my notice, the principal was, the birch, the poplar, the alder (with the bark of which they stain their leather), many species of willow, and a kind of dwarf cedar, or pine, which yields a good essence for beer. The birch the natives tap, and drink the juice, without mixture, or preparation; it it pleasant and refreshing, but somewhat purgative. Birch-bark they convert into vessels, for all domestic purposes; and of the wood they make their sledges and canoes.
Kratscheninikaff
says, They convert the young bark of the birch into food, stripping it off whilst green, drying it in slips, like vermicelli, and stewing it with caviar. He says, there are also firs and larches, the service-tree
(padus soliis annuis),
and two species of the white thorn, one bearing a red, and the other a black berry.
Of the shrub kind, there are junipers, the mountain-ash, wild rushes, rasberries, and a variety of other berries, which the natives gather and boil into a thick jam, without sugar. These are used as sauce for dried fish, and are likewise eat in puddings.
In a wild state, says Captain
King,
we met with several, wholesome vegetables, such as celery, angelica, chervil, garlick and onions, turneps, and turnep-radishes. They have a plant, peculiar to this country, that bears a dark red, single flower, like a narcissus, the root a bulbous one, which they collect in August, dry in the sun, and lay up for use. When roasted on embers, it supplies the place of bread. After being baked in an oven, and pounded, it becomes an excellent substitute for flour, being mixed with all their soups, &c.
They have another plant, called,
sweet grass;
the botanical description of which is,
Heracleum Sibericum soliis pinnatis, soliolis quinis, intermediis sessilibus, corollulis uniformibus.
Hort. Upsal. 65. The time, says Captain
King,
when I took notice of it, was in May. It was about a foot and a half high, had much the appearance of sedge, and was covered with a white down, like hoar frost, which might be rubbed off, and tasted sweet as sugar, but was hot and pungent. The stalk is hollow, and consists of three or four joints, from each of which arise large leaves, and, when at its full growth, is six feet high.
They scrape off the down of this plant, lay the stalks in heaps to sweat, and, on their growing dry again, being put into mats, they will yield a sweet saccherine powder, which exsudes from the hollow of the stalk, but in the proportion of four ounces of powder to 36 pounds of stalks; from which powder they distill a spirit.
They have, also, three other plants; one is a kind of ranunculus, of the grass of which they make a sort of matting, which serves for sacks, bed-cloaths, curtains, &c. Another, which resembles
cyperoides,
is carded, like wool, and of which they make cloths and wadding. The other, is of the common nettle; of the flax of which they make their nets.
Their animals supply them with variety of skins; such as the common fox, the
Zibeline,
or sable, the
Isatis,
or arctic fox, the varying hare, the mountain-rat, or earless marmout, the weasel, the
wolvene,
or glutton, the
argali,
or wild sheep, rein-deer, bears, wolves, and dogs.
The fox
(Canis vulpes),
is the most general object of the chace; as they are found, in great numbers, and of a variety of colours; some of a dark chesnut, some striped with dark-coloured bars; some with black bellies, and the rest of the body a light chesnut; some of a dark brown, some black, others of a stone colour, and some few quite white. Their furs are thick and fine, and superior to those of Siberia, or America. A variety of engines are contrived to catch this animal, which is as crafty here as in other countries. Some traps are calculated to fall on them, some to catch them by the feet, and others by the head. They sometimes lay poison for them, (the
nux vomica
): before the Russians came among them, they used bows and arrows; but now every one is provided with a rifled-barrelled gun.
The mountain-rat is a beautiful, little animal, of a bright shining colour, varying in hue, like the plumage of birds. It lives on roots and berries, is considerabiy less than a squirrel, and eats, as does a squirrel, erect on its hind legs, holding its food in its fore-paws. But
The skin of the glutton is held here in the highest estimation. The women adorn their hair with its parts, which are white; and a Kamtschadale considers himself richly attired, when he has any of this fur about him. They have a superstitious notion, that angels are clad in the skins of these animals. It is said, this creature is easily tamed, and taught a number of pleasant tricks.
Kratscheninikaff
relates, that this small animal frequently destroys deer, and the wild mountain-sheep; that they scatter moss, and bark, which these animals are fond of, at the bottoms of trees; and whilst they are picking it up, drop suddenly upon them, and fastening behind the head, suck out their eyes.
The
argali,
or wild mountain-sheep
(Capra ammon),
an animal unknown, except in Corsica and Sardinia, is here in great plenty. Its skin resembles the deer's; but, in gait and appearance, it is more like a goat. It has two large, twisted horns, sometimes weighing from 25 to 30 pounds, which, in running, it rests upon its back. These creatures are exceedingly nimble and swift, haunt the most craggy and mountainous parts, and make their way among the steepest rocks, with an astonishing agility. The natives work their horns into spoons, cups and platters; and have one frequently hanging at their girdles, to drink out of, when hunting. This animal is of the sheep-kind, and its flesh is well-flavoured.
They have another remarkable animal, about the size of a sheep, called, a
Kangaroo;
resembling, in taste, the flesh of a hare, but better flavoured. Its body is formed like a goose, largest behind, and growing taper to the head which resembles that of a fawn; it has lips, and ears which it throws back, like a hare; in the upper jaw, it has six large teeth, in the under one, only two; its neck is short and small, near to which are the fore-feet, which have five toes, each with nails, like a cat. The fore-legs are kept close to the breast, and seem, like those of the mole, to be used only for digging; they are small, and not more than eight inches long, having no knee-joint, but the hind legs have the customary joints of animals, and are 22 inches long. It has a tail tapering to the end, as long as its whole body, which it carries like a grey-hound; and the whole animal is covered with a short fur, of a dark mouse, or grey-colour. It sits up on its hinder legs, like a hare in her form, and does not run, like other quadrupeds, but leaps, like a hare, or deer.
The dogs of this country are something like the Pomeranian, only a great deal larger, and the hair somewhat coarser. They are of various colours; but the generality, are of a dirty, cream colour. They yoke these dogs to sledges, and thus travel on the snow. Towards the end of May, they are all turned loose, and left to provide for themselves, throughout the summer, being sure to return to their respective homes, when the snow begins to fall. Their food, in winter, is the head, entrails, and back bones of the salmon, which are put aside, and dried for that purpose. Five dogs are yoked to a sledge, two and two, with a leader; and, as a sledge carries but one person, the number of them is very great. Captain
King
's party took up 139. They never use the female for draught, but dogs that are cut. Whelps are trained to this business, by tying them to stakes, with tight, leather thongs, made to stretch; and having their food placed at a proper distance, out of their reach; so that, by constantly pulling and drawing, in order to reach their victuals, they acquire both strength of limbs, and a habit of drawing.
The sledge is a kind of half moon, or crescent, made of light, tough wood, bound together with wicker-work, the horns of the crescent upright, the circular part fixed by four legs, about two feet high, on two flat pieces of wood, like a Laplander's snow-scates, five or six inches broad, extending a foot, at each end, beyond the body of the sledge: these are turned up before, in the manner of a scate, and shod with bone. The body is about four-feet and a half long, and a foot wide, the hollow part of the crescent is covered with a fur, the fore-part ornamented with leather thongs, and tassels of coloured cloth; and the wood-work often stained with red and blue. In front, is a cross bar, to which the harness is fixed, and on which are links of iron, and small bells, the jingling of which encourages the dogs. The person riding in this sledge, sits sideways, resting his feet on the lower part, and carries his provisions, &c. wrapped up in a bundle behind him. Each dog has a collar, to which the reins are fastened; but these are of little use in governing them; the rider depends on the obedience of the dogs to his voice; for this purpose, the leader is so well trained up, and with such a particular degree of care and attention, that one has been valued at 40 rubles, or 10 pounds English. The driver has a crooked stick, which answers the end both of whip and reins; as, by striking it into the snow, he can moderate their speed, or stop them entirely; and, when they are lazy, or inattentive to his voice, he throws the stick at them. The leader immediately picks it up, returns it to the driver, and hastens on. Should the driver lose his stick, the dogs will instantly perceive it; and, unless their leader be of the most sober and resolute kind, will immediately run a-head full speed, and never stop till they are quite spent; but as that is the case soon, it generally happens, that the carriage is either overturned, dashed to pieces against some tree, or hurried down a precipice, and all buried in the snow. The accounts Captain
King
received, of the speed, and extraordinary patience of hunger and fatigue of these dogs, would be scarcely credible, if they were not supported by the best authority. Though fed only on the offal of stinking and dead fish, they are deprived of this wretched food, a day before they set out on a journey; and never suffered to eat, but at the end of it. It is not unusual for them to continue thus fasting two whole days; in which time they will perform a journey of 120 miles. Travelling parties, says
Kraschininikaff,
are often overtaken with dreadful storms of snow; on the approach of which they drive, with the utmost precipitation, into the nearest wood, and are there obliged to stay, till the tempest, which frequently lasts six or seven days, is over, the dogs remaining all this time quiet and inoffensive, except that sometimes, when prest by hunger, they will devour their reins, and other, leather parts of their harness. All the time the sledges are preparing, the dogs howl, with a melancholy noise; but, as soon as they are yoked, and ready to set out, they change to a light, chearful yelping, which ceases, the instant they set off.
It is very difficult to travel in these sledges; for, unless a man keeps the exactest balance, he is liable to be over-turned every moment. In going down hill, they unyoke all the dogs, but one; and, in going up hill, the rider walks. When the snow is very soft and tender, the rider quits the sledge, and makes a path for it, by going before, with his snow-shoes, such as the Laplanders and Eastjaiks use, thus pressing the snow down. This is laborious work; but he has no alternative.
When they take shelter in a wood, from storms, and this storm is likely to last long, a Kamtschadale will wrap himself up in his fur, and creep under the snow, where he lies as warm as in his hut. It is difficult to perswade them to make a fire to warm themselves, or dress their food; all the people of this climate, bear cold so well, that they will sleep as sound in the open air, as others do in warm beds.
The coasts and bays of this country, are frequented by almost every kind of northern sea-fowl, and, among the rest, sea-eagles, of beautiful plumage, and called
a-an-gitche,
from their singular and pleasing cry, consisting of three distinct notes (according to music,
f,
on the first space below,
a, c,
repeated), rising, at equal intervals above each other. Whilst on the subject of birds, I must not omit the disgusting mode of feeding of the arctic gull, which has procured it the name of the parasite. This bird, which is somewhat larger than the common gull, pursues the latter kind, whenever it meets it; the gull, after flying for some time, with loud screams, and evident marks of great terror, drops its dung, which its pursuer immediately darts at, and catches, before it falls into the sea.
In the woods, are many eagles, of a prodigious size, and a great number of hawks, falcons, and bustards. Here are, also, woodcocks, snipes, and two sorts of growse, or moor-ga ne; and, in the sea, seals, sea-otters and whales, &c.
Indeed, there is such plenty of fish of all kinds, that it may be considered as their staple article of food. Fish may be here called the staff of life, with more propriety than bread is in other countries. The whole they convert to various uses: of the skin they make soles to their shoes, and straps and thongs; the flesh they eat, storing the fat for kitchen-use, and for their lamps. With their whiskers, they sew the seams of their canoes, and make nets for large fish, and shoe their sledges with the jaw-bones. The other bones are worked up into knives, and other instruments. Their intestines they clean, blow, and dry like bladders, to store their oil and fat in; and of the nerves, and veins, which are strong, and slip readily, they make excellent snares; so that every part has its use.
They catch quantities of flat fish, trout, herrings and cod; but the salmon-fishing is what the natives most depend on for their winter-provisions; and the coasts abound here with all the different species.
CHAP. II.
Of the inhabitants, their habitations, and employments.
HISTORY is unacquainted with the origin of this people; and they, themselves, know nothing of it; nor of any events that have happened in their nation. I believe it will be admitted, that, from this quarter of the world, the western parts of North America were peopled; especially, when we come to give an account of the people on the coast opposite to the most eastern part of Asia; for Captain
King
has proved, beyond a doubt, that the two great continents, in one part of Bhering's streights, in latitude 66°, are not more than 13 leagues asunder; and that, in this narrow streight, are several islands. A great similarity is observable in the appearance of the two countries. Both are destitute of wood. The shores are low, with mountains rising to a great height. Farther up the country, the depth of water, in the mid-way, between them, is 29 fathoms, gradually decreasing towards either continent, so that it seems as if they were divided by some violent concussion of the earth; and the streights between them being crowded with islands, favour the same idea. But to return to the Kamtschadales, who, to judge of them by their language, figure, and manner, would be taken for a separate people, bearing some little relation to the islanders in their neighbourhood. These, and other circumstances, are a strong proof of the antiquity of this people, who are as wild as the country itself. Few of them have any fixed habitations, but wander, with their herds of rein-deer, from place to place. They are divided into three nations; the Kamtschadales, Koriaks, and Kurilians. The Koraiks inhabit the northern parts, and round the Eastern ocean, almost to Anadir; and the Kurilians inhabit the islands in the Eastern sea, reaching as far as those of Japan.
They are of small stature, swarthy, black hair, large heads, long, flat faces, sharp noses, small eyes, sinking in; small, thin eye-brows, hanging bellies, short legs, and their arms small and slender. They are stout walkers, regardless of change of weather, and indifferent to their manner of living. The women have black eyes, and eye-brows, a delicate skin, lovely complexion, pretty hands, small feet, and are tolerably well-made.
The antient dress of both sexes, differed from the present fashions, which have been introduced by the Russians. Men and women dress nearly alike: they wear a shirt, loose breeches, like the Dutch, which fasten below the knee, with stockings of skin, the hair outwards, and a kind of shoe, or buskin, laced round the leg. Their upper garment is a fur frock, like a carter's frock, that reaches almost to the knees, the hairy side of the skin inwards. It has sleeves that close at the wrist, is bordered with dog's hair, and has a tippet of long dog's hair round the neck, which they can turn up against the face, to keep it warm. This frock, or schube, has also a hood, which they occasionally pull over their heads. The women tie a handkerchief over their heads, that comes down low on the forehead, the knot behind, and the ends hanging down before on each side. The upper robe of the man is tied round his waist, with a girdle. Till the Russians came among them, they went almost naked; wearing only a fur-girdle, handsomely embroidered, with a bag before, and an apron behind; and, at present, when at home, they often sit in this undress. Formerly, they wore bonnets made of bird's feathers, exactly like those on the opposite shore of America, east of Kamtschatka; but they now dress, as do the Russians among them. They wear gloves constantly, even in the night-time. Formerly, they braided their hnir, in the Tartar fashion; now, they divide it on the top of the head, plait it at the neck, and adorn it with ribbands, glass beads, &c. Some dress entirely in the Russian mode, wear cloaths of different kinds, cloaths with buttons, and boots; and the women, when dressed out, wear silk shifts, with ruffles, slippers, and a silk hankerchief round the head, imitating a curtain; which dress costs, at Kamtschatka, at least a hundred sables, or fox-skins, each skin equal to a ruble, which the husband procures in the best manner he can. The Russians, in Kamtschatka, wear the European dress; and the uniform of the troops quartered here, is dark green, faced with red. Formerly, they never washed themselves; now, they paint their faces, red and white. Their white paint is made of rotten wood, and Russian glass, calcined
(Selenites);
their red, of a sea-weed
(Sertularia),
boiled in seal's fat. With this, they rub their cheeks, till they are very red.
INSIDE OF A KAMTSCHADALE HOUSE
Time immemorial, the Kamtschadales have lived in fixed habitations, or villages. They formerly fortified these, by entrenchments, palisadoes, and ramparts of earth; and, of course, the Russians have given these villages the name of
Ostrog,
or redoubt; but they are not suffered to intrench themselves now, though their villages are yet so called. Every family has a winter, and a summer-house. The
Jourt,
or winter-house, is thus formed. They dig a hole in the ground, about five feet deep, the breadth and length proportioned to the number of inhabitants. In the middle of this hole, they erect four wooden pillars; over these, they lay balks, on which they form the roof, or cieling, leaving, in the middle, a square opening, which serves them for window, chimney, and door: this done, they cover the building with grass and earth, so that it resembles, on the outside, a round hillock; but within, it is an oblong square, with the fire-place in one of the long sides. Between the pillars and the walls of their hut, three parts round, they fix broad platforms, made of boards, raised about six inches from the ground, like a taylor's shop-board, on which each of the family lies separately, having first covered them with mats; on that side opposite the fire, there are no benches, this place being left for their kitchen-furniture. The walls are adorned with grass and mats. These huts are entered at the hole above, between the pillars, by an ill-formed ladder, a kind of balk, with steps cut in it; and, it being nearly over the fire-place, for the convenience of letting out the smoke, when they are heating their huts, the steps of the ladder are sometimes so hot, and the smoke so thick, that it is almost impossible for any but a native to go up and down, without being burnt, or suffocated; yet, a Kamtschadale finds no difficulty in this, but fixes his toes on the steps of the ladder, and mounts like a squirrel; nor do the women hesitate to go through this smoke, with their children on their shoulders, though there is another opening, through which the women are allowed to pass; but if any
man
should presume to do the same, he would be laughed at. Here they live all the winter. At their feasts and entertainments, the hotter the jourts are made, for the reception of the guests, the greater the compliment. They betake themselves to the jourts, the middle of October, and continue in them till the middle of May. Five or six families live in one jourt; but each family has a summer-tent to itself.
Their
Balagans,
or summer houses, are built with laths, like pidgeon-houses, raised about 14 feet from the ground, on nine posts, fixed into the earth in three rows; some in circular form, and others in an angular. The balks inclining to each other at the top, give them a conical appearance. The walls, and roof are covered with wood, and thatched with long grass. These huts are very small, and many of them being built close together, boards of communication, like bridges, are laid across, one to the other; and frequently they fix boards round these tents, in which they sit abroad, in fine weather. These raised huts have two doors each, in the sides, opposite to each other; are raised thus high, to defend them from the plunder of wild beasts; and, to prevent the inconvenience of the damp ground, which is very moist in summer-time. As these huts are not very strong, a brisker wind than usual shakes them to and fro; but, notwithstanding this precaution, of raising their magazines so much above ground, bears, in harvest-time, will often make a shift to climb up, and plunder them. Underneath these huts, they tie their dogs.
They have, also, other houses, called
Isbas,
or log-houses. These are raised with long timbers, piled horizontally, the ends being let into one another, and the seams caulked with moss. The roof is sloping, like that of our common cottages, and thatched with coarse grass, or rushes. The inside consists of three apartments. At one end is the entry, a room that runs the whole width, and height of the house; and holds their sledges, harness, and bulky, houshold goods. This communicates with the middle, and best apartment, furnished with broad benches, or platforms, for eating and sleeping on. Out of this is a door into the kitchen; one half of which is taken up by the fire-place, so contrived, by being let into the wall that separates the kitchen from the middle room, as to warm them both. Over these two rooms are two lofts, to which they ascend by a ladder in the entry. Each room has two small windows, of talc, or fish-skin, to let in the light The beams, and boards of the cieling, are dubbed with a hatchet (planes they have none), and, from the effects of the smoke, are black and shining, as jet.
The governor's house is built with logs, as above, and thatched, but much larger; consists of three handsome rooms, neatly papered, the windows of talc. The town of Bolcheretsk, where he resides, consists of several rows of low buildings, each consisting of five or six dwellings, besides a well-looking church, a court-room, and barracks for the soldiers. The inhabitants of this town, altogether, amount to between 5 and 600. The governor, Major
Behm,
lived here, with his wife and family.
The southern Kamtschadales commonly build their villages (which shall not, however, consist of more than 20 or 30 huts), in thick woods, and other places, naturally strong, and not more than 15 miles from the sea. Their summer-habitations are near the mouths of rivers; but those upon the Perichinska sea, and the Eastern ocean, build their villages very near the shore. They consider the river, near their village, as the inheritance of their tribe.
Before the arrival of the Russians, they used stones, and bones, instead of metals; out of which they made their hatchets, spears, arrows, needles, and lances. Hatchets were made of the bones of whales and rein-deer; and sometimes of agate and flint. They were shaped like a wedge, and fastened to crooked handles. With these they hollowed out their canoes, boats, dishes, and troughs, which, with cans of birch-bark, constituted the whole of their furniture; but with so much trouble and time, that a canoe would take three years to make it, and a large boat one year. On this account, a large canoe, or trough, was held in great estimation; and, a village in possession of such a one, set the highest value on it. In these bowls, they dress their victuals, and heat their broth, by throwing red-hot stones into it.
Their knives were made of a greenish mountain-chrystal, sharp pointed, shaped like a lancet, and stuck into a wooden handle. Of such crystals were made the points of their arrows, spears, and lancets, which last they now use to let blood. Needles were formed of sable-bones; and, with these, they used to embroider very curiously; but now, the Russians have furnished them with useful materials of all kinds.
Notwithstanding they imitate the Russians, in a great degree, they have a number of peculiar customs, some of which are very extraordinary, and which will always be retained, from the nature, and the inclemency of the weather. They prefer procuring of fire, by friction, to the use of flints and spunk. To procure fire, they make a small hole in a piece of dry wood, in which they turn a stick, so rapidly, between their hands, that it takes fire. The Eskimaux Indians, on the Labrador coast, do the same; and is a proof of their former communication. Pounded hay serves them for tinder. As some of them delight in war, the Russian merchants are prohibited from selling them any warlike instruments; but they are ingenious enough to make spears and arrows, out of the iron pots and kettles which they purchase; and they are so dextrous, that, when the eye of a needle breaks, they will make a new one, and so repeat it, till nothing remains but the point.
In former times, they never ate till they were hungry; but now, they have regular meals. As what they eat, is always cold, they have very fine teeth. The flesh of land, and the larger, sea-animals, is boiled, in troughs; the broth they drink out of ladles and bowls, and the meat they take out upon boards, and eat with their hands. They divide their fish into six parts: the sides, and tail, are hung up to dry; the back, and the inner part of the belly, are prepared apart, and generally dried over the fire; the head is laid to sour, in pits, then eaten like salt-fish, and much esteemed, though it stinks intolerably; the ribs, and flesh upon them, are hung up and dried, and then pounded for use; the larger bones are dried, and given to the dogs.
Their second favourite food is caviar, or the roes of fish, which they dry in the air; and never take a journey, or go a hunting, without it; and, if a Kamtschadale has a pound of this, he can subsist a great while, without any other provision; for, every birch, and alder-tree, furnishes him with bark, which, with his dried caviar, makes him an agreeable meal; but they cannot eat either separately, for the caviar sticks to the teeth, like glue, and it is almost impossible to swallow the bark, chew it ever so long.
They have a third diet, called
Chupriki,
thus prepared. In their huts, over the fire-place, they make a bridge, of stakes, on which they lay a heap of shell-fish, which there remains, till the hut is as warm as a bagnio. It is there smoked and roasted, and has a very agreeable taste, and may be reckoned the best of all their cooking; for the whole juice, and fat, being prepared with a gradual heat, and kept in by the skin, this skin, when the fish is done, is stripped off, and the guts taken out, and spread, on mats, to dry.
They have also another dish, called
Huigul,
which is, fish laid in pits to sour and putrify; and, though the stench is intolerable, the Kamtschadales esteem it a perfume. This fish rots so much, often in these pits, that it cannot be taken out but by ladles; in which case, it is given to their dogs.
There is a principal dish at all their feasts, called
Selaga,
made by pounding all sorts of roots and berries together, with the addition of caviar, and whale's and seal's fat.
Before the conquest of the Russians, they seldom drank any thing but water, except at festivals, when they drank water in which mushrooms had been steeped. Now they drink spirits as fast as the Russians. After dinner, they drink water; and, at night, set a vessel by their bed-side, with the addition of snow, or ice, to keep it cool, and always drink it up before morning. In winter, they frequently amuse themselves, by throwing hands-full of snow into their mouths.
They eat and drink amazing quantities. Notwithstanding they are poor, they are very hospitable; but their hospitality is original. The host, to do the honours of his house, heats his winter-hut to a considerable degree, and, by never ceasing to press his guest to stuff down his shocking food, forces him ro swallow such a quantity of it, that he must vomit; and, the more he vomits, the more is he pressed to eat. When a man has done such justice to his friend's entertainment, he has secured to himself every service it is in the power of his entertainer to do him. To be a little more particular on this subject: When any man seeks the friendship of another, he invites him to his hut, and, for his entertainment, dresses as much of his best victuals, as might serve ten people. As soon as the stranger comes into the hut, which is made hot for his reception, both he and the host strip themselves naked, then great plenty of victuals is set before the guest, and, whilst he is eating, the host throws water upon red-hot stones, until he makes the hut insupportably hot. The stranger endeavours all he can to bear this excessive heat, and to eat up all the victuals; whilst the host is still endeavouring to oblige him to complain of the heat, and beg to be excused from eating all up. It is reckoned an affront to the host, not to be able to accomplish this; and a niggardliness in the host, not to urge his friend till he complies. During this operation, the host eats nothing himself, and may go out of the hut to cool himself; but the stranger is not suffered to stir, till he acknowledges himself overcome. At these feasts, they gorge to such a degree, as not to be able to bear the sight of food for three days afterwards; and are scarce able to move.
When the stranger has gorged himself to the full, and can no longer endure the heat, he purchases leave to retire, with presents of dogs, cloaths, and other things This, however, is considered as no injury; for he expects, in turn, to treat his friend in the same manner.
In their banquets, they treat their friends much in the same way; except that they do not torment them with heat, nor expect any presents. When they entertain with the fat of seals, or whales, they cut it out in slices, and the host kneeling before his company, with one of these slices in one hand, and a knife in the other, thrusts the fat into their mouths, crying, in a surly tone,
Ta na;
and, with his knife, cuts off all that hangs out of their mouths, after they are crammed as full as they can hold; so do the Eastjaiks.
(See the plates of the Eastjaiks).
To kill a bear is to perform an heroic deed. On this occasion, the hunter, proud of his atchievement, invites his friends to a feast, which consists of pieces of lard, cut from the bear, and handed round among the guests; each of whom grasps it in his hand, takes a bite, and passes it to his next neighbour.
Part of their employment is, to make boats, and sledges. Their boats are made of poplar-wood; but, the Kurilians, not having any wood, make use of what is thrown on shore by the sea. The Koraiks make their boats of the skins of sea-animals, sewed together with whale's beards, and caulked with moss, or nettles, beaten small.
These boats hold two persons; one sits in the prow, the other in the stern: they push, against the stream, with poles, but, when the current is strong, this is so troublesome, that they can scarcely advance two feet in ten minutes; notwithstanding this, they will push these boats, full loaded, 15 miles, and even twice the distance, when the stream is not very strong. The larger boats carry 30 or 40 puds; when goods are not heavy, they lay them on a float, or bridge, resting on two boats, joined together.
The men pass the greatest part of their time in debauchery and idleness. If they pursue any employment; it is hunting, fishing, and looking a little after their houshold affairs. The chace furnishes them with game, but is always attended with danger. They are expert fishers, and are well acquainted with all the proper seasons for it. Their nets are made with nettle-flax. At times, the men are also employed in building huts, forming different utensils, and making bows and arrows. They cut grass for mats; and, contrary to the custom of all other nations, the business of the kitchen belongs to the men; and they assist each other, not from selfish motives, but from friendship. Bears they kill chiefly with a gun; and, there is such a natural affection in these animals, that, if they fire at a young cub, when the mother is near, and the cub drops, the dam will become enraged to a degree little short of madness, and, if she gets sight of her enemy, will only quit her revenge with her life. They never, therefore, fire at a cub, if its mother be near. If the dam be shot, the cub will not leave her side, even after she has been dead a long time; but continue about her, shewing, by a variety of affecting actions and gestures, marks of the deepest affliction; and thus become an easy prey to the hunters.
Nor is their sagacity less extraordinary. In order to catch the bareens, which are too swift of foot for them, they will have recourse to the following stratagem. These animals keep together in large herds, frequenting mostly the low grounds, and browsing at the feet of rocks and precipices. The bear hunts them by scent, till in sight, when he advances warily, keeping above them, and concealing himself among the rocks, as he makes his approaches, till he gets immediately over them, and nigh enough for his purpose. He then begins to push down, with his paws, pieces of the rock, among the herd below; and, when he finds he has wounded one, so as not to be able to escape, he pursues him, overtakes, and devours him.
From this digression, I will proceed to the employment of women; which is, in tanning, converting nettles into thread, mats and baskets, drying fish, and preparing isinglass, roots and berries. To tan skins, they scrape off the hair, rub it with fat and fish-roe, and squeeze it in, by twisting it in their arms. They make shammoy leather of rein-deer skins, by fermenting it with the bark of the alder-tree, and a decoction of the same bark. The Kamtschadale women are excellent sempstresses, and embroider admirably with nettle-thread, and the tendons of animals. The women look also after the rein-deer and dogs. Women also are the only taylors, and shoe-makers; it is a disgrace for the men to do any thing of the kind. They are also employed in dying skins, in comforting, and curing the sick.
CHAP. III.
Of their manners, customs, genius, &c.
THOUGH the Kamtschadales imitate the Russians in a great degree, they have, as I said, a number of customs peculiar to themselves. They sleep quite naked, on mats, and their outer garments, covering themselves with their cloaths. They are a dirty, lazy people; and, so careless, that they often find themselves exposed to the most extreme indigence. They eat out of the same vessels with their dogs, and without cleaning them. They are commonly covered with vermin; and, like the Tunguse, amuse themselves with catching and eating them. They let their nails grow to their natural length, which are always full of nastiness. Besides painting of themselves, the women endeavour to add to their beauty, by plastering on their faces, the thin cawl, or skin, which covers the entrails of the bear. Some of these ladies affect a modesty, wear veils, and turn away their eyes from strange men. Those that have not natural hair sufficient, wear false locks; and they will often put on to the amount of ten pounds weight, so that their heads shall look like a hay-cock.
They have a lively imagination, a strong memory, and such a genius for imitation, that they copy, with ease, whatever they see. Their songs and tales are full of wit and pleasantry; they are great mimics, take off the way of speaking, and motions of strangers, and turn them into ridicule. They pay little regard to the customs of their ancestors; but, when they change, it is generally for the worse, and are more apt to follow bad examples than good. They seldom give themselves the trouble to reflect; and forget their faults too soon to improve the future regulation of their conduct, for which they have no manner of concern. Their curiosity is unbounded; insomuch, that dreams are matters of such moment, as to claim all their attention. Love is their predominant passion, and good-nature, their chief characteristic. These form a strange contrast to their negligence and insensibility, which makes them not only indifferent to the pleasures of life, but even to life itself. Poverty gives them no concern; and nothing but hunger can call them to the chace; and then they seldom go so far, but they can return, at night, to the arms of their women. They care not how their food is dressed, so they have enough to fill their bellies; nor of what quality their liquor is of, so as it does but intoxicate: in short, they are given to sensuality. They talk, with regret, of the happy times of their ancestors; who could walk up to the ancles, in the overflowing of a drunken debauch; whilst, in their days, they can scarcely wet the soles of their feet. Their immoderate lust proceeds even to bestiality; and the men, contrary to the custom of other Eastern nations, make themselves the voluntary slaves of the women, to gratify their lascivious desires, Pederasty is practised almost publicly. The women too, are as much addicted to a profligate libertinism, as the men; and not only indulge with their own nation, and expect such a return for every service they do to strangers, but also pursue unnatural means, to gratify their passions.
Steller,
who was among them a long time, attributes this insatiable lust, to their daily use of half-rotten fish, fish-roe, rancid fat and onions; but, especially, to their excessive indolence.
They are remarkable for their cowardice, boasting, and slavishness to people who use them hard; and, for their obstinacy, and contempt, of those who treat them with gentleness.
They have a very confused notion of honour and shame. Kind treatment has no effect upon them; therefore, to render them more civilized, less knavish, and more serviceable than they naturally are, they must be treated with severity. Pleasure and inaction are their only objects; of course, they steal nothing but women and dogs, which formerly were the continual causes of national war. They are cowardly, and base, to an extreme; gratifying their revenge, only by the darkest and most secret means. The least apprehension of danger, drives them to despair; and, as they have no hope of futurity, they fly to suicide as a relief, not only from present, but even from imaginary, evil. Not only those who are confined for offences, but such as are discontented with their lot, prefer a voluntary death to an uneasy life, and the pains of disease. The ancient people of the north, says
Aelian,
used to kill men, when they became, through old age, a burthen to themselves and society; and children will strangle their aged parents, at their own request, as do the Eskimaux Indians, which we have seen. But the Kamtschadales will dispatch themselves, when any disease has rendered them infirm. They want courage to bear great pain, and always seek relief in suicide. If a woman brings forth twins, they commonly kill one of them (and, perhaps, throw them to their dogs); likewise every weak child, and such as are born with any defect. If a woman finds her pregnancy an inconvenience to her, she endeavours to effect a miscarriage, that she may more easily renew the indulgence of her desires. The sick, and malefactors, meet the most terrible death, without any emotion.
In their social life, the men secure the affections of the women, by rough and free caresses, by little assiduities, and by acts of submission and obedience. But the men, among themselves, take no manner of notice of one another, either by bowing, shaking hands, or other salutations. Their abusive words are,
Koscha, Koaughwitsch, Kana, Kaiktschitsch;
that is, dog, hanged villain, devil; and accusations of preposterous lusts.
Their diversions consist of feasts, at which they eat and drink, sing, whistle through a pipe made of a cabbage-stalk, dance, and tell stories. Singing is the most favourite amusement of the women. Their voices are agreeable, and their songs are either national, or composed
extempore.
The exploits of their gods, and heroes, and the adventures which their ancestors, and themselves, have met with in hunting, are the subjects of their tales, and fabulous stories; and their dances, like those of the Eastjaiks, are pantomimic. Their bear-dance, is an exact counterpart of every attitude and gesture, peculiar to this animal, through its various positions; and this is the foundation, and ground-work, of all their other dances.
A KAMTSCHADALE WEDDING.
As soon as the ceremony is over, he is at liberty, next night, to go to her bed; and, the day following, carries her off to his own village. After some time, the bride and bridegroom, return to the bride's relations, where the marriage-feast is celebrated in the following manner, of which the writer of this account was an eye-witness, in 1739.
The bridegroom, his friends, and wife, visited the father-in-law, in three boats. All the women were in the boats, and the men, being naked, pushed them along with poles. About one hundred paces from the village, to which they were going, they landed, began to sing, and used conjurations, with tow fastened in a rod, muttering something over a dried fish's head, which they wrapped in the tow, and gave to an old woman to hold. The conjuration being over, they put on the bride a sheep-skin coat, and tied four images about her. Thus loaded, she had some difficulty to move. They then returned to their boats, and came up to the village, where they landed, a second time; at this landing-place, a boy of the village met them, and taking the bride by the hand, led her along, all the women following.
When the bride came to the hut, they tied a strap round her, by which she was let down the ladder, the old woman who carried the fish's head, going before her. This head, she laid down at the foot of the ladder, where it was trodden on by the bride and bridegroom, and all the people present, and then thrown into the fire.
All the strangers took their places, having first stripped the bride of her superfluous ornaments. The bridegroom heated the hut, dressed the victuals, which they had brought with them, and entertained the inhabitants of the village. The next day, the master of the hut entertained the strangers, winh great abundance, who at the third day departed; the bride and bridegroom remaining to work some time with their father. The superfluous parts of the bride's dress were distributed among her relations, who were obliged to return her presents of far greater value.
These ceremonies only relate to a first marriage; for, in the marriage of a widow, the man and woman's agreement is sufficient, but he must not take her to himself, before her sins are taken away. This can only be done by some stranger's lying with her once; but as this taking off of sin is considered by the Kamtschadales as very dishonourable for the man, it was formerly difficult to find one to undertake it; so that the poor widows were at a great loss, befure the Russians came amongst them, since which, they have been at no great want of strangers, to take away their sins.
Marriage is forbidden only between father and daughter, mother and son; a son-in-law may marry his mother-in-law, and a father-in-law his daughter-in-law, and first cousins marry frequently. Their divorce is easy, consisting only in separating beds. In such case, the man immediately marries again; and the woman accepts another husband, without any further ceremony.
A Kamtschadale has two or three wives, with whom he sleeps by turns. Sometimes he keeps them all in one hut, and sometimes in different ones. With every maid he marries, he is obliged to to go through the above-mentioned ceremonies. Though these people are fond of women, they are not so jealous as the Koraiks. Nor are the women more jealous; for, even their wives, will live with one husband in great harmony, even though he should also keep concubines.
Like the Brasilians, and Americans, and the ancient Thracians, they set no great value on the virginity of their brides; and hence proceeds the generosity with which the Kamtschadale girls bestow their favours on the Russians, having no reason to fear any reproaches on this head from their future husbands. The Kossacks, and soldiers of the garrisons, had formerly little seraglios at their service.
Though many women do all they can to disqualify themselves from breeding, there are some who ardently wish to be mothers, and, to that end, use superstitious means. Some swallow spiders; others, call in the aid of magicians, who perform a great many ridiculous ceremonies to render them fruitful. The women are not very fruitful: they have, commonly, very easy births; for, in a quarter of an hour afterwards, they will appear abroad, about their ordinary business, and without any change of countenance. They have no professed midwives; the mother, or nearest relation, performing the office. Some friend, who calls in to see them, gives a name to the child, the most common of which are,
Rosko, Pickengour, Aphaka.
They have a very tender, but ill-directed affection for their children; who, so far from being obedient to them, treat them with harshness and cruelty.
The Kamtschadales are, in general, strong and healthy. Some of them are maimed, from accidents in travelling, or falling from high rocks. The scurvy, abscesses, foul humours, the venereal disease, pleurisy, mortifications, jaundice, and inflammations of the eyes, are their common disorders. For the scurvy, they eat wild berries, and raw fish. The venereal disease was among them, before the arrival of the Russians. Inflamed eyes proceeds from the dazzling whiteness of the snow. They formerly inoculated their children for the small-pox, by scratching the face with a fish-bone, dipped in variolous matter; but, as this distemper has made no appearance for a number of years, they dropped this salutary practice, when, in 1758, it was unluckily brought there by a soldier, who had a long time been cured of it; and, this scourge of the human race, then raged so dreadfully, as to sweep away two-thirds of the nation.
These diseases, they think are inflicted upon them by the spirits that inhabit particular groves, if they ignorantly happen to cut down a tree there. Their chief remedies consist in charms and conjurations, though they neglect not more specific remedies. They very thankfully acknowledge, that they owe the little advancement they have made in physic and surgery to the bears; that, by remarking with what herbs these animals rub the wounds they receive, and what they have recourse to when sick and languid, they have become acquainted with most of the simples in use among them.
When bitten, by a dog, or a wolf, they lay the bruised leaves of the
Ulmaria
upon the wound, drinking a decoction of them at the same time. The leaves and stalks, pounded, they use in bruises; and use the decoction for the belly-ach, tooth-ach, and scurvy. In the jaundice, they take the roots of the
Iris sylvestris,
clean them, beat them in warm water, squeeze out the juice, and use it as a clyster, two or three times a-day; this purges and relieves. If, after some time, it does not cure, they repeat it. They let blood, by raising the skin, with wooden pincers, and piercing it with a chrystal lancet. In pains of the back, they rub the part afflicted, before a fire, with the root of
cicuta,
being careful not to touch the loins, which, they say, would occasion spasms. In pains of the joints, they place a pyramid of birch fungus over it, set it on fire, and let it burn till it comes to the skin, which then cracks, and leaves a wound that discharges a good deal of matter. The root of the
anemonides,
or ranunculus, is made use of to poison their enemies; and they, also, poison their arrows with it.
Instead of burying their dead, they bind a strap round the neck of the corpse, draw it out, and leave it near the hut, to be devoured by their dogs; under a notion that, such as are eaten by dogs, will drive with fine dogs in the other world; and, by leaving them near the hut, they suppose those evil spirits, whom they imagine were the cause of its death, seeing the dead body, may be satisfied with the mischief they have done. However, they generally remove to some other place, when any one has died in the hut, and leave the body in it.
All the cloaths of the deceased, they throw away; from an opinion, that any one wearing them, will come to an untimely end. After the decease of any one, they use the following purification: going to the wood, they cut a few rods, of which they make a ring, and creeping through it twice, they carry it to the wood, and throw it towards the wood. Those who dragged out the body, are obliged to catch two birds, of some sort or other, one of which they burn, and eat the other with the whole family. This purification is performed on the same day; for, before this, they dare not enter any one's hut, but their own; nor will any one enter theirs. In commemoration of the dead, the whole family dines upon a fish; the fins of which they burn in the fire.
CHAP. IV.
Of their learning, language, religion, government, trade, &c.
THE Kamtschadales have no knowledge, but what they acquire in their narrow circle of life, and in pursuance of the impulses of nature. They have neither letters, nor hieroglyphics. Their language is national and peculiar; though inclining to that of the Mongols; and, as it adopts no foreign term, is very difficult to learn. They endeavour to give every thing such a name, as will express the property of it; but if they do not understand the thing thoroughly themselves, they take a name from some foreign language, which, perhaps, has no relation to the thing itself. Thus, for example, they call a priest,
Bogbog;
because, probably, they heard him use the word bog-bog, God. Bread, they call
Brighsatin Augsh,
that is, Russian root.
Probably, the Kamtschadales, and the Mongols, might formerly have been one and the same people; for, as the Chinese Mongols have, so have the Kamtschadales, many words ending in
ong, ing, sang, chin, cha, ching, ksi,
and
ksung.
They are ignorant of the causes of eclipses; but, when they happen, they carry fire out of their huts, and pray the luminary eclipsed, to shine as before. They know only three constellations; viz. the Great Bear, the Pleiades, and the three stars in Orion. They count by tens, and are such poor arithmeticians, that they cannot arrive at that number, without using their fingers.
It is very diverting to see them attempt to count above ten; for, having reckoned the fingers of both hands, they clasp them together, which signifies ten; then, they begin with their toes, and count to 20; after which, they are confounded, and cry,
Metcha?
that is, "Where shall I take more?" They reckon ten months in the year, some longer, and some shorter; and divide them, by the order of particular occurrences; as the month,
Koakouaisch,
is, that when the cuckoo is first heard, and so on. They divide our year into two; so that winter is one year, and summer another. The summer-year begins in May; and the winter, in November. They do not distinguish the days by any particular appellation, nor form them into weeks, or months; but mark their epochs, by some one moveable event; as the raging of the small pox, the arrival of the Russians, the great rebellion, and the like.
Like all other barbarous nations, the Kamtschadales have no notions of a Deity; but what are absurd, ridiculous, and shocking to a humanized mind. Their ancient, national religion, is Schamanism; their idolatrous worship, like that of the Jakutes. They call their god,
Kutchu,
but pay him no religious worship; and, the only use they make of his name, is to divert themselves with it; they relate such scandalous stories of him, as one would be ashamed to repeat. Among other things, they reproach him with having made so many steep hills, so many small and rapid rivers, so much rain, and so many storms; and, in all their troubles, they upbraid and blaspheme him. However, they celebrate always three days in the month of November, hence called, the month of purification, after their summer, or harvest-labour, is over. They consider it as a sin, to do any work, or make any visits, before these holidays; the breach of which they never suffer to pass, without expiation. From hence, we may see, that the ancestors of these people, were accustomed to offer up the first-fruits of their summer-labours to God; and, at the same time, make merry with one another. Their ceremonies, in the celebration of their holidays, are silly to the extreme, and consist of many ridiculous antics.
They erect a pillar on a large wide plain, which they bind round with rags. Whenever they pass this pillar, they throw a piece of fish, or some other victuals, at it, and near it never gather any berries, or kill any beast, or bird. This offering, they think, preserves their lives, which, otherwise, would be shortened; however, they offer nothing of any use to themselves; only the fins and tails of fish, or such things as they would be obliged to throw away. In this all the people of Asia agree, offering, to their idols, only such things as are useless to themselves. Besides these pillars, several other places are esteemed sacred; such as burning and smoking mountains, hot springs, and some particular woods, which they imagine are inhabited by devils, the chief of whom they call,
Kanna.
The world, they believe, is eternal, and the soul immortal; and, that it shall be again joined to the body, and live eternally, subject to fatigues and troubles, as in this present life; with this difference only, that they shall have greater plenty of every necessary. Even the smallest animal, they imagine, will rise again, and dwell under the earth. They conceive the earth to be flat, and that, under it, there is a firmament, like ours; and, under that firmament, another earth, in which, when we have summer, they have winter, and, when we have winter, they have summer. With regard to future rewards and punishments, they believe, that, in the other world, the rich will be poor, and the poor rich.
Their notions of vice and virtue are equally extravagant. They believe every thing lawful that gratifies their passions; and conceive, that only to be a sin, from which they apprehend danger and ruin: so that, they neither reckon murder, self-murder, adultery, oppression, or the like, any wickedness; on the contrary, they look on it as a mortal sin, to save any one that is drowning; because, according to their notions, who ever saves him, will be soon drowned himself. They account it also a sin, to bathe in, or drink hot water; or to go up to the burning mountains. They have, besides these, innumerable, absurd customs; such as, scraping the snow from their feet with a knife, or whetting their hatchets upon the road. It may, however, be said, that they are not the only people who have ridiculous superstitions.
Besides the above-mentioned gods, they pay a religious regard to several animals, from whom they apprehend danger. They often fire at the holes of sables and foxes. When fishing, they intreat the whales, or sea-horses, not to overturn their boats; and, in hunting, beseech the bears and wolves not to hurt them.
They fill almost every place in heaven and earth, with different spirits; and offer them sacrifices, upon every occasion. Some carry little idols about them, or fix them up in their huts; but, with regard to God, they not only neglect, as I have said, to worship him, but, in case of troubles and misfortunes, curse and blaspheme him.
Every old woman is looked on as a witch, and an interpreter of dreams; and there are magicians, who pretend to conjure, and are called,
Guispahas.
In their conjurations, they whisper to the fins of fish, and some other things; by which they think to cure diseases, avert misfortunes, and foretell futurity. They are, in general, great observers of dreams, which they relate to each other in the morning, as soon as they awake; judging, from thence, of their future good, or bad fortune; and some of these dreams have their interpretations fixed and settled. Besides this, they pretend to chiromancy, and to foretel a man's fate, by the lines of his hand.
All this ignorance, and superstition, will, however, be soon rooted out from among them. Their strong bent to imitation, has led them to embrace christianity; so that, at present, there are few who are not converted. Chapels of worship are built in almost every village, and schools erected, to which the Kamtschadales send their children, with great pleasure. But, as the people neither fear, nor love God, and the very idea of a Providence appearing to them ridiculous, they make no better christians than they were idolaters; all their actions concentering in sensuality, and having no conception of a paradise, destitute of an indulgence of their present desires. The schools, however, will teach their rising generation better principles; there is little doubt, but the christian religion, being there transplanted, will rise and flourish in that remote corner of the world, as it hath done in more southern climes.
What shall be said of their government? Their societies are distributed into families: each family has a separate ostroschok, or hamlet, consisting of a few small houses, and situated, in general, near some river. When a young man marries, he removes into the hamlet to which his wife belongs. When a village becomes too populous, they separate, and form a new village, but always on the same river. The oldest of these villages, the stock of collateral hamlets, enjoys some prerogatives, as pretending to have been the abode of one of the sons of the founder of the Kamtschadale nation, who must be a descendant of their god, Kutchu. They pay a deference to old men of the villages; but their authority is very circumscribed. They have no punishment, but for theft, and murder. The fingers of a thief are burnt, that he may be known and detested; a murderer is delivered into the hands of those whom he has injured, who may, and often do, make him suffer the most cruel torments.
Formerly, whole villages were often in a state of warfare; which arose from their frequent attempts to carry off the women from one another's hamlet; and, though they had no ambition of encreasing their power, or enlarging their territories, before the Russian conquest, they had such frequent quarrels, that seldom a year passed, without one village, or other, being entirely ruined.
Their wars were carried on, more by stratagem than bravery; for, being naturally cowards, they never attack but from necessity. Their self-murder arises more from fear of encountering misfortunes, than daring to die. When they do attack, it is in this manner: they steal into the enemy's village by night, and surprise them; which is easily done, as they keep no watch. Thus a small party may destroy a large village; having nothing more to do, than to secure the mouth of a hut, suffer none to come out but one at a time, and, of course, knock down that one, or oblige him to submit and be bound. In their former wars with the Koraiks, when a village was blockaded, and they had no hope of dislodging the enemy, it was common for the men, first to kill all the women in the place, and then themselves; knowing, that were they to surrender, they would not meet a better fate. The bow and arrow, the pike, and the club, were all their offensive and defensive arms. Their quivers are made of the larch-wood, glued round with birch-bark; their bow-strings, of the blood-vessels of the whale: their arrows are about four feet long, pointed with bone, and are very dangerous, being all poisoned; so that a person wounded by them, generally dies in 24 hours, unless the poison is sucked out. They have also coats of mail, made of mats, or seal-skin, cut into thongs, and plaited together. These are worn on the left side, tied, with thongs, upon the right. Behind, is fixed a high board, to defend their heads; and another before, to guard the heart.
It is remarkable, that when they march, two never go a-breast, but follow each other in the same path; which, by use, becomes very deep and narrow; so that, it is impossible for one that is not used to it, to walk therein, for they always set one foot strait before the other, in walking.
Their constant hostilities furnished opportunities of aspiring to the dignity of
Toyons,
or chiefs of parties; but their present situation has made a change; the political relation in which they stand, is almost the same with that of the other Siberians. They have Russian overseers; and are obliged to give hostages, for greater security. Every tributary-male must furnish a sable-skin, or some other, of equal value. The Russians have divided them, according to the ostrogs, where they pay their tribute; and, according to this division, there are about 3000 natives, including men, women, and children; but were the number three times as great, the inhabitants would be but few, for such an extent of ground; and still fewer, if we consider, that, in the most northern ostrogs, the Koraiks, belonging to them, are included in the number.
The Russians have five forts in this country; and near the same number at Ingiga, which, though to the north of the peninsula, are under the governor of Kamtschatka. In these sorts, are about four hundred Russians and Cossacks; and, besides this, there are some few Russian traders, emigrants and exiles. In some of the ostrogs, or hamlets, are but 20 or 30 natives. Captain
King
passed four extensive ostrogs, and did not find a single inhabitant in them; so thinly are they scattered: so that, in the present, diminished state of the natives, with fresh supplies of Russians and Cossacks perpetually, pouring in and intermixing with the natives by marriage, it is probable, that in less than half a century, there will be very few of them left.
The governor of this country, in 1779, resigned that command the same year, and left the place; and was succeeded by Captain
Shmaleff.
The Russian government is here mild and equitable, but a military one. The natives are permitted to chuse their own magistrates, from among themselves; in the way, and with the same power, they ever had. One of these, under the title of
Toyon,
presides over each ostrog, and is the referee in all differences; imposes fines, and inflicts punishments, for all crimes. This Toyon has the appointment of an officer, to assist him, and act under him.
By an edict of the present Empress, no crime whatever can be punished with death; but, in cases of murder, the punishment of the knout is inflicted, with such severity, that the offender generally dies under it. The Greek religion is here introduced, and missionaries settled.
It is to this place, that many criminals are transported, from different parts of the empire; and, without doubt, it is the most horrid place of exile of all the vast empire of Russia. Captain
King
met there with a celebrated exile, the Hospodin Ivaskin; a gentleman of a considerable family in Russia. His father was a general in the Empress's service; and he, himself, having received his education partly in France, and partly in Germany, had been page to the empress Elizabeth, and an ensign in her guards. At the age of 16 he was knouted, had his nose slit, and was banished, first to Siberia, and afterwards to Kamtschatka, where he had now lived 31 years. He was a very tall, thin man, with a face furrowed all over with deep wrinkles, and bore, in his whole figure, the strongest marks of old age, though he had scarcely reached his 54th year. No one ever knew the cause of his banishment; but they took it for granted, that it must have been for something very notorious, particularly as two or three governors of Kamtschatka have endeavoured to get him recalled, since the present Empress's reign; but, far from succeeding in this, they have not been able to get the place of his banishment changed. He told Captain
King,
that, for 20 years, he had not tasted bread, nor had been allowed subsistence of any kind whatever; but that, during this period, he had lived among the Kamtschadales, on what his own activity, and toil, in the chace, had furnished; that, afterwards, he had a small pension granted; and that, since Major
Behm
was governor, his situation had been mended: that he had procured his pension to be encreased to 100 rubles yearly, which is half the pay of an ensign, in this place. This gentleman had forgotten both the French and German, so totally, as not to understand what was said to him, in either of these languages.
The trade of this country, formerly, was confined to procuring the necessaries of life; bartering with the Koraiks for sables, fox and white dog-skins, for deer-skins, cloaths, and other hides. It is a custom here, among the natives, that, when one wants a thing another has, he goes freely to visit him, makes known his wants, and, though a stranger, the other will accommodate him.
The commerce with the Russians, as far as concerns the exports, is entirely confined to furs, and carried on by a company of merchants, instituted by the present Empress. These are bought with money; so that there is a great circulation of specie in the country. Articles of importation are, European manufactures, English, Dutch, Siberian, and Chinese. They consist of coarse woollen and linen cloths, yarn stockings, bonnets, and gloves; thin Persian silks, cottons, Nankeens, silk and cotton handkerchiefs; brass, coppers, and pans; iron stoves, files, guns and gun-powder, hardware, such as hatchets, bills, knives, &c. looking-glasses, flour, sugar, leather boots, &c. and these sell for treble the price they might have been bought for in England: and, though the merchants have so large a profit on these imported goods, they have still a larger on the furs at Kiachta, on the frontiers of China, which is the great market for them. The best sea-otter skins sell generally in Kamtschatka, for about 30 rubles each; a ruble about 4s. 6d. English. The Chinese merchants at Kiachta purchase them at more than double that price, and sell them again at Peking, at a great advance; where a farther, profitable trade is made with some of them, at Japan. If, therefore, a skin is worth 30 rubles at Kamtschatka, to be first transported to Okotsk, thence to be conveyed, by land, to Kiachta, a distance of 1,364 miles; thence on to Peking, 760 miles more; and, after this, to be transported to Japan; what a prodigious advantageous trade might be carried on, between Kamtschatka and Japan, which is but a fortnight's, or, at most, three weeks sail from it?
The duties arising from the exports and imports, amount, annually, to about 10,000 rubles. There are six vessels, of 40 to 50 tons burthen, employed by the Empress, between Okotsk and Bolcheresk, two ports in Kamtschatka, in transporting stores and provisions. Besides these, there are about 14 vessels, employed by the merchants in the fur-trade, among the Eastern islands, where the trade is chiefly carried on. Indeed, the whole sea, between Kamtschatka and America, is covered with islands.
AN ACCOUNT OF THE KORAIKS AND TSCHOUKTSCHES.
THE Koraiks inhabit the northern coast of the gulph, Penchinskoi; and the most northern part of Kamtschatka, to the river Anadir. Their country extends, westward, from the river Olomon, to the Indian ocean. They are a nomade and shepherd-people; and the country they wander over is rude, marshy, full of small rocks, and, in many places, destitute of forests.
Some of these people are, however, settled, in the northern part of Kamtschatka, on the eastern coast, and have a strong resemblance to the Kamtschadales. Their dress and habitations are of the same kind; they are tributary to the Russians, and are under the district of the Ingiga. The Koraik women make lines upon their faces, as do the Tunguse, live on the same kind of food as the Kamtschadales, and dress it equally as nastily.
The wandering Koraiks are employed wholly in breeding and pasturing deer, of which they possess great numbers. A chief will have a herd of four or five thousand. Their sledges are drawn by rein-deer, not by dogs; nnd though, when not wanted, will pasture with others, yet, when called, will instantly quit the herd, and attend upon their master. These two nations of the Koraiks, speak different dialects; but neither of them bear the least resemblance to the Kamtschadale.
The history of this savage people is enveloped in the thickest darkness, having no knowledge of it themselves; they are without the least education, quite uninformed, and were not known before the Russians subdued them. There is nothing more probable, than that all these different nations are colonies from America. Before the Russians came among them, riches alone conferred prerogative; but now they are under the same laws and regulations with other Siberians, pay their tribute in furs, but are not more numerous than the Kamtschadales.
Hunting and fishing are the chief employ of these people; not spending their time in the kitchen, as do the Kamtschadales, but leaving that to the women. Their social manners are not agreeable, though they profess a great deal of friendship, making every one welcome who goes to see them; but not stuffing them, against their will, as do the Kamtschadales. They keep their huts exceedingly hot, and the women, whilst in them, go quite naked. They travel, in winter, in sledges, something like the Laplanders, managing the deer with leather reins, to which is tied a comb, so that, by pulling the rein, it pricks the neck of the rein-deer, and spurs him on. They sometimes put two a-breast, and will travel 100 miles a-day. They never kill a deer, eating only such as die by accident, or disease; and, to this, their numerous herds are owing. The poor go into the service of the rich, and join their little herds to those of their masters.
The wandering Koraiks are much more savage than those which are settled; often making parties to go and plunder their neighbours. Before they enter on such an enterprize, they always drink of the decoction of the intoxicating mushroom, to inspire them with courage. Their arms are, the bow and arrow, a lance, and a club. Theft, rapine, and murder, among themthemselves, are criminal, but heroic acts, when committed on others. Their greatest pleasure is, looking at their numerous herds, which are always too great to be counted; and yet, if one strays, it is immediately known.
The Koraiks are all polygamists, some having four wives. These are not purchased, but caught, in the manner of the Kamtschadales. The rich marry among each other, without any regard to relationship. The wandering Koraiks are exceedingly jealous, and torment their unhappy wives cruelly; the
, and their gallants, are often sacrificed to an ill-founded suspicion: but the settled Koraiks, err as much in the other extreme. They are pleased to see their wives noticed by strangers; and the caresses the wife receives, is so much pleasure bestowed on the husband. They make an offer of their wives and daughters to strangers, as companions for the night: an acceptance of such an offer, is considered as a test of friendship; and, a refusal, a mark of contempt, which is sure to displease.—We find a similar custom, mentioned in scripture.
The women, also, with cords about them, sitting in the ways, burn bran for perfume; but if any of them, drawn by some that passeth by, lie with him, she reproacheth her fellow, that she was not thought as worthy as herself, nor her cord broken.
Baruch,
vi. 43.
— Herodotus charges the ancient Babylon
ans with the like; and it still obtains, among some of the South Americans. Probably, the custom of
bundling,
still practised in the interior parts of North America, among the civilized people, is the remains of this old custom. If a gentieman goes to visit at a farm-house, where there are any marriageable daughters, if he stays the night with them, he is always invited to bundle, or sleep, with one of them, which he likes best. He sleeps in his breeches, and she in her petticoat; and, if the fair one, has the constancy and resolution to rise a virgin, she may, probably, gain a husband in her bed-fellow. Among the Koraiks, this politeness is attended with a disagreeable circumstance to the favoured stranger; for his fair partner makes water, in his presence, and offers him a bowl of it, to wash his mouth with.
The old women name the children. They neither swaddle them, nor use cradles; but suckle them, till three years of age. In sickness, they have recourse to their priests, who cure them by a charm; and always burn their dead. Having built a pile, they draw the corpse there on a sledge, dressed in its best cloaths; and, on this pile, burn it, with all the arms and utensils of the deceased; killing the rein-deer that drew it there, eating its flesh, and throwing the remains into the fire. They are Schaman idolaters; and, their ceremonies resemble those of the Kamtschadales.
Tschouktsches.
The people of Tschouktsk, have so strong a resemblance to the Koraiks, that they are certainly descended from the same stock. They inhabit that promontory in Siberia, which extends from the rivers Anadir and Kolyma, to the north-east, and separates the frozen sea from the northern ocean. They are, says Captain
King,
a stout, well-made, bold, war-like race of people, formidable neighbours to the Koraiks. The Russians have many years endeavoured to bring them under their dominion; and, after losing a great many men in their different expeditions for this purpose, have not been able to effect it. As they lie in latitude 66°, the climate is cold, the soil marshy, abounding in rocks, barren, bare of woods, and extremely wild and savage. The summer lasts only a few months; but, in this season, the days are very long, as, for several weeks, the sun does not set at all. The winter extends through the greatest part of the year; and, during this melancholy season, it is almost one continual night. The inhabitants are similar to the country; the most savage, barbarous, most untractable, the least civilized, the most rugged, and cruel, of all the nations of Siberia. The history and strength of this people is yet unknown; but, by a probable computation, they are estimated at 3,500 males, capable of bearing arms. Captain
Cook
says, they are certainly a distinct nation from the Americans on the opposite coast; though the streight that separates the two continents, is but 13 leagues wide; for the Americans on that coast, at least such as he had seen, were rather low of stature, with round, chubby faces, and high cheek bones; whereas, the Tschouktsches, on the eastern coast of Asia, have long visages, and are stout and well-made. Their dress (he speaks only of the men) consists of a cap, a frock, a pair of breeches, a pair of boots, and a pair of glove all made of well-dressed leather, or the skins of deer, dogs, or seals; some with the hair, or fur on, others without it. Their caps are made to fit the head, very close; and, over these caps, they wear hoods of dog-skin, large enough to cover both head and shoulders. Their hair is black, but is cut close to the head; and none have any beard.
Such as came down to the coast, when Captain
Cook
approached the shore, were armed with bows and spears, or spontoons; and, as the last were of iron, or steel, he is persuaded, they were of European, or Asiatic workmanship; and that they get them by trading with the Russians; the staves of these spears were carved, and inlaid with brass and white metal. Their arrows were pointed with bone, or stone; some few of them had barbs. These were in a leather quiver, slung over their left shoulder; and their spears were slung, by a leather strap, over their right shoulder. Most of their quivers were extremely beautiful; being made of red leather, neatly embroidered and ornamented. Indeed, barbarous as
Muller
calls them, Captain
Cooke
says, that several other things, and in particular their clothing, shewed, that they were possessed of a degree of ingenuity, far surpassing what one could expect to find amongst so northern a people. They mark not only their faces, but their hands and arms, as do the Tunguse, with black figures; bore their ears, and wear earrings, of glass beads.
We found the village, continues he, where we landed, composed both of summer and winter-habitations; the latter are exactly like a vault, the floor of which is sunk a little below the surface of the earth. One of them, which I examined, was of an oval form, about 20 feet long, and 12, or more, high. The framing was composed of wood, and the ribs of whales, disposed in a judicious manner, and bound together with smaller materials of the same kind. Over this framing, was laid a covering of strong, coarse grass, and that again covered with earth; so that the outside of the house looked like a little hillock, supported by a stone wall, three or four feet high, built round the two sides, and at one end; and, at the other end, the earth is raised, sloping, to walk up to the entrance, which is by a hole in the top of the roof, over the built end. The floor was boarded, and under it a kind of cellar, in which I saw nothing but water; probably, the floor is so contrived, to keep the house dry, from the draining of the land. At the end of each house, was a vaulted room, apparently a store-room, communicating with the house, by a dark passage, and, with the air, by a hole in the roof, which is on a level with the ground we walk on; but they cannot be said to be wholly under ground, as one reached to the edge of the hill, along which they were made, and which was built up with stone. Over it stood a kind of sentry-box, or tower, composed of the bones of large fish.
Their summer-huts are pretty large and circular; being brought to a point, at top. The framing is of slight poles, or bones, covered with the skins of sea-animals. In the inside, there is a fire-place, just within the door; and, near this, lie generally some few, dirty vessels, made of wood, or leather. Their bed-places are close to the side, and take up about half the circuit. Some privacy is probably observed; as they have several partitions, made with skins. Their bed and bedding are made of deer-skins, and are generally very dry and clean.
About their habitations, are erected several stages, ten or twelve feet high, composed of fish-bones, in which they dry their fish, out of the reach of their dogs, of which they have a great many of the fox-kind, large, with long, soft hair, like wool. Captain
Cooke
supposes, these dogs constitute part of their food, as he saw several lie dead, that had been killed that morning.
They neither eat raw flesh, nor fish, says
Tooke,
but dress their food by hanging it in the smoke. Sausages are their favourite dish; which they dress, by smoking. They have numerous herds of rein-deer, but never milk the female, of course, like the Koriaks, want butter and cheese; nor will they kill a rein-deer, for food, without the utmost regret; but eat such as die naturally; game, of all kinds, sea animals, whales cast on shore and shell-fish. Water is their constant drink, except when they mean to get drunk; to do this, they drink the decoction of the intoxicating mushroom, which they procure from the Kamtschadales, in exchange for rein-deer skins.
The care of their deer is their principal occupation, yet they both hunt and fish. In the number of their rein-deer consists all their wealth; some will have 10,000, some 50,000: t
is
n
bles them to furnish the fixed Koriaks and Kamtschadales with skins for cloathing. Those Tschouktsches, who possess not a single deer, as is the case with some, join fortunes together, and live in common, by hunting and fishing, catching the whale, morses, and the like. The women of this nation, follow the same employments with the Koraik women.
TSCHCEKSCHES & SEA HORSES
They lie, in herds, of many hundreds, on the ice; huddling one over the other, like swine, and roar and bray very loud; so that, in the night, or in foggy weather, they gave us notice, says Captain
Cooke,
of the vicinity of the ice, before we could see it. We never found the whole herd asleep, some being always on the watch; these, on the approach of the boat would wake those next them, and the alarm being thus gradually communicated, the whole herd would be awake presently. But they were seldom in a hurry to get away, till after they had been once fired at; then they would tumble one over the other into the sea, in the utmost confusion; and if we did not, at the first discharge, kill those we fired at, we generally lost them, though mortally wounded. They did not appear to us to be that dangerous animal some authors have described, not even when attacked. They are more so in appearance, than in reality. Vast numbers of them would follow and come close up to the boats; but the flash of a musquet in the pan, or even the bare pointing at one of them, would send them down in an instant. The female will defend the young one to the very last, and at the expence of her own life, whether in the water, or upon the ice; nor will the young one quit the dam, though she be dead; so that if you kill one, you are sure of the other. The dam, when in the water, holds the young one between her fore-fins. This animal seems to shed its teeth, for the largest and the oldest of them had not tusks more than six inches in length. We killed many of these animals, and eat them for fresh provisions. The lean parts are coarse, black, and have rather a strong taste; but this grew less disgusting by use: my men preferred it to salt meat. The heart tasted like a bullock's heart. The fat at first is as sweet as manna, but in a few days grows rancid, unless salted. When melted, it yields a good deal of oil, which burns well; and their hides were useful about our rigging.
In this voyage Captain King sailed up through the streights northward, to the latitude of 70° 33 m. with a view of sailing eastwards, round the coast of America, or westwards round that of Asia, but met with such fields of ice, as rendered it impracticable, and convinced him there was no safe passage for shipping on either coast. In these high latitudes he met with nothing but the sea-horses I have described, and some white bears, one of which he shot, and gives us the following dimensions of:
 
ft.
ins.
From the snout to the end of the tail
7
2
From ditto to the shoulder-bone
2
3
Height of the shoulder
4
3
Circumference near the fore legs
4
10
Breadth of the fore paw
 
10
Weight of the four quarters, 436lb.
These animals are of the kind with those Lord
Mulgrave
met with in his voyage to the north pole. Their flesh is fishy; but infinitely superior to the sea-horse. But, to return to the Tschouktsches.
The manners and customs of this people resemble much those of the islanders of these latitudes. Several families often live together in the same pit, having their apartments separated by upright poles. The habitation is commonly full of smoke; and, is so hot, that the women sit always, stark naked, even in the coolest part. Every division has its particular lamp of fish-oil, and a wick of moss. Their beds are only low benches, covered with furs; and they are, by constitution; so inured to the cold, that the flame of a lamp is always sufficient to warm them in the open air. When they travel, they are drawn in sledges, by rein-deer. Their canoes are made of the ribs of whales, covered with seal-skins; and, after the manner of the Greenlanders and Esquimaux, sit in them, as in a purse, drawn close round their body. They are about 12 feet long, narrow, and flat-bottomed.
With respect to their ferocity, they are naturally as revengeful and dangerous, as the Tunguse, their neighbours, are mild and gentle. Twenty Tschouktsches never hesitate a moment about attacking 50 Koraiks; and, had it not been for the Russian forts, or ostrogs, the former would long ago have exterminated the whole Koraik nation; nay, the very ostrogs built in their neighbourhood, are in continual danger.
Notwithstanding their characteristic of ferocity and cruelty, they are very hospitable, not compelling their guests, indeed, to gorge themselves, but will kill a rein-deer for their entertainment, which they never do for themselves. After the manner of the Koraiks, they offer to their guests the most inchanting beauties at their disposal, to make the night agreeable to them; and these fair ones never forget that charming piece of gallantry, of presenting a cup of their urine to such as accept their favours.
Their manner of taking wives, of educating their children, their rejoicings, and their interments, are exactly the same as among the Koriaks. Like them, they are of the Schamane religion. Their ideas of virtue and vice are exceedingly confused. It is held criminal to thieve, or murder, in a family, or race, to which a person belongs; but these crimes, committed elsewhere, are not only allowed, but held honourable and glorious. They have a bad opinion of a young girl, who has never acquitted herself cleverly in some theft; and, without such testimony of her dexterity and address, she will scarcely find a husband: and robberies committed on the circumjacent families, are considered as heroic acts. They swear to the truth of a thing in the name of the sun; and, when conquered by their enemies, give their priests as hostages, and pledges of their obedience.
They live, in families, according to their races; but have no formal superior. They obey the most wealthy and sagacious among them, preserving, at the same time, the most perfect independence, and the right of following each his own particular inclination. They think little of death, bear the troubles inseparable to human life, with great reluctance; of course, are very indifferent as to existence, and ready to terminate their sufferings by suicide; a circumstance that has thrown great obstacles in the way of their subjection.
OF THE KURILIANS.
THE chain of islands running in a south-west direction, from the southern promontory of Kamtschatka to Japan, extending from latitude 51° to 45°, are called the Kuriles. According to
Spanberg,
they are 22 in number, not reckoning the small ones. The most northern is called Shoomska, and is not more three leagues from the continent. The next to the south, is called Paramousir; is much larger than Shoomska, and inhabited by its own natives; their ancestors, according to a tradition among them, having come from an island rather more to the south, called Onecutan. Those two islands were first visited by the Russians, in 1713, and then brought under subjection. The others in order are at present made tributary; and the pastor of Paratounca, in Kamtschatka, is their missionary, and visits them once in three years. The most southern island, is Nadeegsda, and represented by the Russians, who trade to it, as inhabited by a race of men remarkably hairy, and who live in a state of entire independence.
Spanberg
places this island in 43° 50′, N. latitude, and mentions his having watered here; and, that this watering-party brought off eight of the natives, of whom he relates the following circumstances: That their bodies were covered all over with hair; that some of them had silver rings, pendant from their ears; that they wore a loose, striped, silk gown, reaching to their ancles; that seeing a live cock on deck, they fell on their knees before it; and, likewise, before the presents that were brought to them, closing, and stretching forth their hands, and bowing their heads, at the same time, to the ground; and that, excepting the peculiarity of their hairiness, they resembled the other Kurile islanders, and spoke the same language. The journal of the ship Cashicom, which first discovered this island, and called it Jeso, speaks of the people being covered with hair. Such a man was, if I recollect right, exhibited some time since in London; but not from this part of the world.
A trade of barter is carried on between Matmai and the Kurile islands, in which, for furs, dried fish, and oil, they get silk, cotton, iron, and Japanese articles of furniture. The inhabitants of as many of the islands as are under the dominion of Russia, are converted to christianity; and, probably, the time is not very far distant, when a friendly and profitable intercourse between Kamtschatka, and this whole chain of islands, will be brought about, which will open a communication with Japan itself; a very desireable and advantageous thing to the Russiaas.
These islands are all mountainous; and, in several are volcanoes and hot-springs, as in Kamtschatka. On some of them are forests, on others, none; but the climate of the whole is temperate. They seem to have been formed by a chain of mountains, beginning at Kamtschatka, and ending at Niphon, whose vallies, being sunk into the sea, have left their summits, above water, of various magnitudes. The nearest to Kamtschatka, is Shoomska, only three leagues from it; and, the furthest island of the chain, called Matmai, is only eight leagues from Japan, and about the same distance from the western continent of China.
The chief of these islands are inhabited, but many small ones are desert and uninhabited; and they differ in situation, and natural constitution; the more northern ones have forests of laryx and pines; the more southward, produce canes, bulrushes, bamboos, vines, &c. In some of them are bears, foxes, and
jovis musimon
of
Pallas.
They are not very populous; for, all the islands, subject to Russia, in 1766, were enrolled at no more than 262 males. They are a friendly, hospitable, generous, humane, race of people; excelling the Kamtschadales, not less in the formation of their bodies, than in the docility and quickness of their understandings. Their language is agreeable to the ear, and they speak and pronounce it slowly. Their habitations are dug in the earth, like the Kamtschadales, only neater; are wainscoted and furnished with Japan goods. Their food consists of amphibious and sea-animals, and all kinds of game, fowls, fish, fruits, wild roots, and sea-cabbages, a species of the
fuci,
and also sweetmeats from Japan.
The dress of the northern islanders resembles that of the Tunguse. It is made of swan-skin, and other aquatic fowls. They cut their hair close to the head, and wear hats, woven of reeds. The southern Kurilians love a thick beard, let their hair grow, and stain their lips black. These dress like the Chinese, and wear a Japan fabre, slung in a girdle over their robe; but wear no breeches. The women dress like the men, but stain their lips blacker, and mark their faces, hands and arms, with black figures. Fond of foreign fashions, they adopt them, and mix them with their more natural dress. Priding themselves in a variety of colours, they get their cloaths from Japan; but are very dirty and slovenly.
Their manner of taking a wife, is much like that of the Kamtschadales. The lover does all he can to obtain the last favour; this done, he carries her off. If she proves unfaithful, the husband challenges the gallant; and, in their duels, each strikes his antagonist three blows, by turns. The women have difficult labours; the midwife names the child, without ceremony. The southern islands bury their dead; but the northern ones, cover such as die, in the winter, with straw, and leave them. They have a particular veneration for old men; and, when any islanders make a visit to some neighbouring isle, the inhabitants take up their arms, and dress to receive them. They treat them like friends; salute them, by bending the knee, embrace, and kiss. Some of them have so much sensibility, at these friendly interviews, as to shed tears. After the first salutations, the oldest in company makes a speech, in which he relates his adventures, and what has happened to him, and his friend, since the last visit; all the company standing up, during the recital, and listening with the profoundest attention. This orator having finished, he to whom the visit is paid, makes a speech in his turn, and every one declares he is much interested in all that hath happened to the rest. After these assurances of reciprocal friendship, an entertainment takes place, but filthy enough; they sing, dance, and tell tales. Their expressions are tender, modest, and becoming; and, as they hate lies and fraud, they always speak the truth, with the utmost fidelity.
OF THE EASTERN ISLANDS.
AMERICA, we have observed, is separated from the eastern coast of Siberia, and continent of Asia, by a streight; in which are many islands, of various magnitude; these also are under the dominion of Russia. Some of those nearest to the coast of Siberia, have been subject to Russia ever since they have been in possession of Siberia. Some of the larger, and at a greater distance from the continent, have been but lately visited by the Russians; and many, doubtless, are undiscovered. Captain
King,
who went out with Captain
Cooke,
in his last voyage, touched at one of them; and, from him, and some of the Russian navigators, we shall be able to give the reader a tolerable account of them.
A Map Comprehending
BHERINGS STRAITS,
with the adjoining Coasts of
ASIA & AMERICA.
These islands are supposed to extend from the peninsula of Kamtschatka, to the continent of America, in the direction west south-west, to east north-east, from about 56 degrees north latitude to 61; one of the largest of these islands, is Koumandirskoi, lying about 63 leagues east of the mouth of the river Kamtschatka; and is about 60 miles in length. The land Oumnakis about 63 leagues in circuit, and Ounalashka, is larger than this.
Some of these islands are so near the coast of Siberia, that the Tschouktsches venture over in their little canoes; and the nearest, to the American coast, is supposed to be the island of Kadyak. All these islands are alike, with respect to soil: they are stony, mountainous, boggy, wild, and uncultivated. In their produce they differ, according to their situation and climate. Some are covered with forests, and abound with forest-game. The more southern are bare of wood; but abound in foxes, and other animals, that love an open country. The sea-otter,
Mustela Lutris,
sea-lion,
Phoca Leonina,
sea-bear,
Phoca Ursina,
seals, and other amphibious animals, are found on their shores; and the sea throws up sea-cabbages, muscles, a variety of shell-fish, and a quantity of floating timber.
Some of these islands are inhabited, others not; and those which are, but thinly; some having but two or three families, and some not exceeding 100. The Russians have no settlement on any of them; but, in 1766, enrolled the inhabitants of all they visited, and could make no more than 367 tributary-males in the whole.
Two Russian vessels make the voyage of some of these islands once a year, and collect a tribute from all they visit. The different islanders seem to be about as much distinguishable from each other, as the different Tartar tribes in Siberia; and their language varys but little. The natives of Kadiak, call themselves
Kanaguil,
not unlike
Karalit,
the name of the Greenlanders, and the Esquimaux Indians.
Of Ounalaskka, we shall speak more particularly.— The inhabitants of these islands, in general, are stout and robust, but active. Their faces are flat, and their skins fair. They have lank, black hair, and but little beard. They have a good share of plain, natural understanding; and their children learn foreign languages with great facility. They seem cold and indifferent in all their actions; but, rouse them, and they are furious and revengful, without any regard to consequences. The least apprehension, drives them to despair; and, the least affliction, to self-murder. Though free and independent, they are neither fraudulent nor perfidious. They will offer their wives to those who behave friendly to them; but, whoever shall presume to offer violence to a woman, is sure to pay the forfeit of his life.
There is such a perfect equality among them, that they have no chief, or superior, nor any law, or punishment. They enjoy life, without any bitter recollection of the past, or any anxious solicitude for the future. They live in a society of families, called a race, mutually defending each other. If strangers, of a neighbouring isle, come to visit them in small companies, they are amicably received; but, if in larger bands, they are repulsed with arms, the inhabitants of the same island considering that island as their own. They have no knowledge of letters, are ignorant of their own history, totally void of education, or any kind of information, but what immediately respects their way of life. To give a specimen of their language:
Agaïya,
signifies the sun;
Touguilag,
the moon;
Tana,
the water;
Katschik,
the wind;
Kiguenag,
fire;
Taïyagha,
man;
Ayagout,
woman;
Yaga,
wood.
They have no connexion with any island but their own; and have no domestic animals, not even dogs. Game they kill with snares and arrows, and fish, by inclosing parts of rivers, and catching it in baskets. The women are employed in this business, equally with the men, and partake of all their labours. The Siberian women surpass these in tanning; but these surpass the Siberians in embroidery. They dress in furs; and since the arrival of the Russians among them, wear the worst, and barter away the best, for shreds and remnants of cloth, thread, needles, beads, and other trifles.
These happy people are so contented with their lot, that the master of a tolerably good pit, thinks himself the first man in the world, provided he has a good number of women, a strong canoe, and such cloaths as would be considered as handsome in no other place. Yet these haughty islanders do not possess the least article, that would have any value with an European; nay, they scarce enjoy so much authority, as to make their children, in the least, obedient.
Their arms and moveables are a perfect picture of the infancy of the world. The bow and arrow, the dart, the lance, and the sling, the club, and the shield, are all their weapons; and they can throw a javelin, three feet long, to the distance of 30 fathoms, equal to a Greenlander.
Their
baidars,
or boats, are several fathoms long, and will carry from five to 40 persons. They are badly made, and with much trouble, being constructed of floating timber, hewn with sharp stones, or of the ribs of a whale, covered with sea-horse skin. Their common canoes hold no more than two persons, and seldom weigh more than about 25lb.
Their habitations are like the Kamtschadales, only larger. Their beds are mats, or furs; and they light their pits with lamps, suspended from the roof. A whole village, or several families, will live in a single pit, to the number of from 50 to 300 persons; and a stranger, first entering them, by a hole in the roof, must conceive he is descending into hell. A gloomy darkness, a thick smoke, a heat, often insupportable; the pale light of stinking tapers, a number of beings, all wild and naked, having nothing human but the figure; a great abundance of vermin; food, the most miserable and disgustful, a constant noise and din, a horrible stench, worse than that of Styx. All these together form the picture presented to a stranger descending into these subterranean caverns: but they have summer-huts also, like the Kamtschatdales, abounding also with inhabitants. Many of them pass their whole life in holes of rocks, or in natural caverns which they find.
Their furniture is as simple as their houses; troughs, made of drift wood, shells, hollowed stones, baskets, bark and leather-vessels, straw mats, sharp stone-hatchets and knives, utensils of bone; and, where the Russians usually land, some few skillets and boilers.
Persuaded that Nature never meant to conceal
heir shape, they go always naked within their huts, as well adults as children. Indeed their huts are kept so hot, that dress would be burthensome. In this easy negligence the two sexes converse together; and whenever they are abroad, they throw of all their dress as soon as it becomes inconvenient. Some, however, wear a fur, or leather-apron; and many, like our forefathers, hide their nakedness only with a leaf; not so much for decency, as security against injury.
In many of the isles, both sexes ornament their faces, arms and hands, by staining them, with the figures of birds, beasts and flowers; by pricking the skin till it bleeds, and rubbing the part with a black powder. Many bore their ears with a number of holes, through which pass gaudy feathers, strings of beads, and other ornaments. As a great quantity of hair is by them esteemed ugly, the men pluck out the greatest part of their beards by the roots; the women cut their hair before, and tie up the rest, on the crown, in a tress. Some men shave their heads close, with sharp stones, and others leave a round tonsure. The generality are so filthy, as never to wash themselves; and, with their nastiness, and copper complexion, are truly ugly. Those who do wash, wash with their own water, and then with spring-water; and these have a good skin, and look fresh and well. Both men and women, throughout the isles, make two deep incisions, when young, in the lower lip, and a hole in the cartilaginous separation of the nostrils; and, when they mean to dress, fix, in these incisions in the lip, two slender teeth, turned upwards, and smoothly polished, about two inches long; through the hole in their nose, they pass a little bone of a bird, in order to swell out the nostrils. Some, that wish to be smarter than ordinary, will make a third incision in the lip, and fix some coloured stone in it.
When they wear a dress, it is a frock, like that of the Koraiks, reaching to the knees, made of the belly-skin of various water-fowl. Those of the women are made of skins, with the fur inwards, and worn next the skin, the outside stained with a red earth; and this is all their dress, except, in summer, they will sometimes wear a wooden hat, scooped out in the shape of a duck's beak, about 18 inches long, from the fore part to the hind; these they paint with coloured earths, decorate the edges with feathers, the crown with a bunch of sea-lion's hair, eight or ten inches long, and surround them with glass, lead, and bunches of feathers, so as to resemble a Roman helmet. Some on the top place an image of a man sitting, about an inch high, tolerably well covered in stone. Other islanders wear conical caps, made of skin, and embroidered, with broad fringes of hair, and the sides and borders ornamented with feathers, and embroidered with the sinews of animals, hair, and glass beads, which they get from the Russians. Others will skin a water-fowl, in such a manner, that the neck, wings and tail, shall remain with the skin; and, in drying them, keep the head and neck erect, and the whole in a good shape, and put their head into the body of the bird: these caps are worn by women, and are the handsomest part of their dress. They vary these caps in a number of ways, but all equally ornamented. Their best garments are made of the belly-skins of different fowls, shaped like shifts, and reaching to their heels; the borders prettily embroidered, two inches broad; and, a quantity of stripes of fine furs, six or eight inches long, tied all round it; at bottom, there is a furbelow, six inches broad, made of a number of strait slips of skin.
Their food is agreeable to what the islands produce. They eat whales, sea-horses, porpoises, sea-otters, sea-bears, sea-lions, beasts of prey, and other game; all sorts of fowl, birds of prey, and others, and all kind of fish; in short, except insects, and their fellow-creatures, nothing comes amiss to them, either in the animal or vegetable kingdom; and they will eat them half-rotten. Salt is unknown to them. Generally speaking, they eat all their food raw; so that, the blood of the flesh they devour, runs out of their mouths, through the incisions in the lower lip. What they
do
dress, is either warmed in the flame of their stinking lamps, by sticking it on large skewers, and turning it round in that flame; or, by stewing it between two stones, hollowed out for a pan and its cover; the joints being cemented with clay; after thus dressing it, they set it by till it is cold. Their drink is water; and, if they have not fresh at hand, they will drink sea-water. As a treat, they will gulp down the blubber of whales, porpoises, or other fish. They are not fond of spirituous liquors; but, from the Russians, many of them have learnt to take snuff.
Every family or village has a certain extent of sea-coast appropriated to their sole use, from which they collect for food any fish, or dead animals that may be cast ashore; nor does any stranger presume to invade this territory; if he does, he is in danger of being shot, or knocked on the head.
Simple and natural as the life of these islanders is, it does no great credit to the state of nature, as the natives are but a small degree above the level of the brute creation. They are of a serious turn, very laconic in their conversation, rude, and uncivilized; but at the same time, from carelessness, generous and hospitable. They have no id
of subordination or decorum, but every one follows his own propensities; eating when they are hungry, and even performing the evacuations of nature whilst they are eating. Children almost fill the pit, in which they live with their ordure; and grown persons seldom go further than the roof; of course the stench is intolerable. In times of scarcity they will fast several days together. At home they go quite naked, practise propagation as their inclination leads them, whether in public or out, without any reserve; and the women are delivered in the presence of any one that may chance to be with them, without the least privacy. Their beds are mats, and their cloaths are their only covering.
Their matrimonial connexions scarce deserve the name of marriage. A boy, old enough to hunt or catch fish, takes home one or two girls or women, and they live together in the same pit, without any previous contract. A man generally selects his first wives himself; but if he is a stout fellow, and a good huntsman or fisherman, maidens, deserted women, widows, and wives dismissed from their husbands, will offer themselves to them; so that many will have four, five, or six wives. Where a household has been thus formed, there is generally a gang of old men, women, and children. All are welcome, and employed according to their strength; but when times are not prosperous with such a family, they disperse as easily as they form. The men go to seek provisions elsewhere; women take to other men, and carry their children with them; and this without disorder or dispute; for the women are as independent and free as the men. Men will sometimes truck away their wives and children; and such wives and children will sometimes return to their original home: and in this pure state of nature, we see fewer disagreeable consequences than under more regular institutions.
Ignorant of the exclusive right of a married state, these islanders know no jealousy, but leave their wives in a perfect freedom of promiscuous intercourse with other men. As they engage in wedlock with no other motive than to have an assistance in gaining a livelihood, they are not subject to excessive libertinism. They neither envy any man's pleasure, or good fortune; and, as buxom women are preferred to maidens, girls are suffered to grow up in perfect liberty, totally unconstrained by either virtue or modesty.
Women have easy labours; frequently bathe their children in cold sea-water; and, whenever a child cries, it is plunged under water, even in the coldest weather, till it is silent. They suckle their infants but a short time, feeding them with raw and gross meat; and, to make them squat down on their heels, often tie their feet together, and place them in that attitude.
But, savage as they are, they are not insensible, but will seek to soften the rubs of life by various amusements. They make no festivals either at their nuptials, the birth of their children, or their religious exercises; yet they pass the whole month of December in visiting, not only their neighbours, but the adjacent isles. A successful chace, a visit from an unexpected friend, or the carcase of a whale thrown on the coast
will cause a rejoicing. On this latter occasion, that of a whale being cast ashore, it becomes the property of the whole island; the people assemble from all parts, express the most extravagant joy, perform idolatrous worship round the animal; then strip themselves naked, and proceed to cut up and divide the prey. This done, they put on their best cloaths, swell out their nostrils, decorate their lips with crooked bones, and devour all the parts that are eatable with demonstrations of excessive transport. At these celebrations they beat a kind of kettle drum, sing, dance, tell stories, and indulge their amorous propensities. This drum is the only musical instrument they have; and they dance, and beat it in procession before their visitors. Their dances are regular, but backwards and forwards; several persons make a long string, and perform a number of leaps and gesticulations. They have at this time also masquerades, concealing their faces with wooden masks, representing the form of various animals. The men attend these quite naked, except a small apron or purse worn before; but the women ate cloathed. Having danced enough, they break their drums and masks; couches are then brought, the women are courted, and the host of the entertainment furnishes such of his guests with ladies as brought none with them. When their visitors are leaving them, the parting is cold; the host neither conducting them on their way, nor the guests expressing any thanks for the kind reception they have met with.
They are pagans, and their faith is Schamanism, as is indeed that of all the Eastern Siberians; though less sensual than these islanders. They have no distinct idea of gods, their influence on mankind, nor of a future state. They have neither festivals, nor any degree of worship. Their magic priests are like those of Kamtschatka,, who pretend to be related to, and connected with spirits, and boast of knowing the past and the future.
Like other Schamanders, they inter with the dead sundry utensils, to enable them to begin the other world with. They suppose the volcanoes, the smoking rocks of their island, and sundry great caverns, to be the abode of their spirits, and to these objects their prayers are addressed; but they have in their habitations certain small idols, which they rub with blood and grease, as their food. They are terrified at ghosts and spectres; and it is with great reluctance that they inhabit the huts of any deceased person; of course, left such huts should be useless, they carry the sick out of them, and suffer them to die in the open air. They bury their poor in their cloaths, wrapping them up in mat, with certain utensils and implements of hunting; but the rich they dress in their best garments, place them in a little canoe, hang it to a kind of gallows, and thus suffer it to rot in the air.
They have generally a good constitution, and preserve it to a very advanced age. The small-pox is unknown to them; and the scurvy, itch, fevers, and many other distempers, are seldom met with. Their teeth continue firm and white even to old age; and if any one finds himself unwell, he keeps a perfect regimen for a few days, and is perfectly recovered. For the head-ach they open a vein in the head with a sharp flint, and dress their wounds with healing herbs, which their country affords. They have little fear of pain; and as they make glue by a preparation of the blood of animals, if they have no such blood at hand, they will, without hesitation, strike themselves on the nose with their fist, and attain from themselves as much as they have occasion for.
The Russian troops and merchants, Cossacks, and others, who frequent these islands, lead but a troublesome life. They embark at Kamtschatska, visit different places, and seldom perform the voyage in less than a year. At these times they receive the tribute, barter with the natives a variety of small merchandize, beads, and trinkets for furs. The Russians themselves are suffered to hunt when there, and the Tartars will attend them on the occasion. The Russians have their own barracks on shore; never lodge with the natives, nor trust themselves alone with them; for though the islanders generally treat them with curtesy, yet, if any suspicion is broad, they resolve on destroying every foreigner, and that without reflection.
Oonalahska.
—Of all the groupes of islands in the north-sea, that, of which Oonalahska is one, is by far the greatest, and this island the principal of them all. This group extends 40 leagues from Oonalahska to F. N. F. The Russians have a settlement on this island, which at present consists only of a dwelling-house and two store-houses. Besides the Russians resident here, are a number of Kamtschadales; and some of the natives, as servants, or slaves, to the former. These all live in the same house; the Russians at the upper end, the Kamtschadales in the middle, and the natives at the lower end; where is fixed a large boiler for preparing their food, which consists chiefly of what the sea produces, with the addition of wild roots and berries. There are Russians settled on all the principal islands, between Oonalashka and Kamtschatka, for the sole purpose of collecting furs. Their great object is the sea-beaver, or otter: they have frequented Oonalashka, since the year 1762. The latitude of Samganoodka, the principal haven of Oonalashka, and where Captain
Cooke
lay, in October, 1778, is 53° 5 min. N. the longitude, 193° 30 min. W.
The Russians here settled, are obliged to put up with the food of the country; but Captain
Cooke
says, he got some whale's flesh of their dressing, and it was very palatable; and they treated him with a kind of pan-pudding, made of salmon-roe, beat up very fine, and fried, which is a good succedaneum for bread, which they seldom can procure. As to liquor they have none, but the juice of berries, which they sip at meals. As the island supplies them with food, so does it with clothes, which consist chiefly of skins. Their upper garment is made like our waggoner's frock, and reaches to their knees. Besides this, they wear a waistcoat, or two, a pair of breeches, a fur cap, and a pair of boots, the soles and upper leathers of which, are made of Russian leather, but the legs of strong gut.
The natives are, to all appearance, peaceable and inoffensive, and honest to the extreme; perhaps, made so from strict discipline. They have their own chiefs on each island, and seem to enjoy liberty and property unmolested. They are low of stature, but plump and well-shaped, with short necks, chubby faces, black eyes, small hands, and long, strait, black hair, which the men wear loose behind, and cut before; but the women tie up in a bunch.
Both sexes wear the same kind of cloaths; the difference is only in the materials. The woman's frock is made of seal-skin, like a carter's frock; that of the men, is made of the skin of birds: both reach below the knee. This is the whole dress of the women: but the men wear, over their frock, another, made of gut, which repels water, and has a hood over it, that draws over the head. Some wear boots; and, all of them, a kind of oval-snouted cap, made of wood, with a rim, to admit the head. These caps are dyed with green, and other colours; and, round the upper part of the rim, are stuck the long bristles of some sea-animal: on which are strung glass beads; and, in the front, is a small image, or two, made of bone.
INHABITANTS OF OONALASHKA.
They use no paint; but, the women puncture their faces slightly; and, both men and women, bore the under lip, in which they fix pieces of stone. At Oonalashka, indeed, it is an ornament only used by the women. Some fix beads to the upper lip; and, all of them, hang ornaments in their ears.
Their food consists of fish, sea-animals, birds, roots, berries, and sea-weeds. They dry large quantities of fish in summer; which they lay up, in small huts, for winter-use; and, probably, they preserve roots and berries for the same time of scarcity. Every thing is eaten almost raw: boiling and roasting are their only means of cookery. Some have got little brass kettles; and, those who have not, make one of a flat stone, with sides of clay, not unlike a raised pye. I was once present, says Captain
Cooke,
when the chief of Oonalashka made his dinner of the raw head of a large halibut, just caught. Before any was given to the chief, two of his servants eat the gills, without any other preparation than squeezing out the slime. This done, one of them cut off the head of the fish, took it to the sea, and washed it, then came with it, and sat down by the chief; first pulling up some grass, upon a part of which the head was laid, and the rest was strewed before the chief. He then cut large pieces of the cheeks, and laid these within the reach of the great man, who swallowed them with as much satisfaction as we should do raw oysters. When he had done, the remains of the head were cut in pieces, and given to the attendants, who tore off the meat with their teeth, and gnawed the bones, like so many dogs.
As these people use no paint, they are not so dirty in their persons as the savages that do; but they are equally lousy, and filthy in their houses. They live in a pit, as do the Kamtschadales; generally an oblong square, about 50 feet by 20. Over this pit is raised a wooden roof, first covered with grass, and then with earth; so that, without, it has the appearance of a dunghill. In the middle of this roof, towards each end, is left a square hole; one to admit the light, and the other for an entrance; as, by this hole, they descend into the hut by a post, with steps into it. Round the sides and ends of the huts, the families (for several lodge in one house) have their separate apartments, where they sleep, and sit at work, not on benches, but in a kind of concave trench, dug all round the inside, and covered with mats; so, that this part is kept tolerably decent, but the middle of the hut, common to all, is far otherwise. For, although it is covered with dry grass, it is a recess liable for all kinds of filth; and the place for the urine-trough, the stench of which is not mended, by raw hides, or leather, being constantly steeped in it. Behind, and over the trench, are placed the few effects they are possessed of; such as their cloaths, mats, and skins.
INSIDE OF A HOUSE AT OONALASHKA.
Their furniture consists of bowls, spoons, buckets, cans, matted baskets, and, perhaps, a Russian kettle, or pot. All these utensils are very neatly made, and well formed; and, yet they have no other tools, than a small piece of iron, fitted into a crooked, wooden handle, resembling an adze, and a knife. There are few, if any of them, that do not take snuff, chew and smoke tobacco—a luxury that bids fair to keep them poor.
They did not seem, continues Captain
Cooke,
to covet any other iron instruments than needles to sew their canoes, and make and embroider their clothes. For thread, they use the sinews of animals. They are excellent makers of baskets and mats, which are not only beautiful, but strong; in short, there is such a neatness and perfection in most of their workmanship, that shews, they neither want ingenuity, or perseverance.
Their houses are lighted, and heated, by lamps; having no fire-places. These lamps are made of a flat stone, hollowed out like a plate, about the size of one, filled with oil, and the wick is a piece of dried grass; over these, they occasionally sit, and warm themselves. Fire is produced, both by collision and attrition; the former, by striking two stones against each other, on one of which brimstone is rubbed; the other, by two pieces of wood, as among the Kamtschadales, Greenlanders, and Eskimaux Indians.
No such thing as a weapon is to be seen among them; having, probably, been disarmed by the Russians: nor have they any large canoes; probably, likewise, a political prohibition. Their canoes are built after the manner of the Greenlanders: they are about 12 feet long, a foot and a half broad in the middle, and 12 or 14 inches deep. They will occasionally carry two persons, one of whom is stretched at full length in the canoe, and the other sits in the seat, or round hole, which is nearly in the middle. Round this hole, is a rim, or hoop of wood, about which is sewed gut-skin, that can be drawn together, or opened, like a purse. The man seats himself in this place, draws the skin tight round his body, over his gut-frock, and brings the ends of the purse-skin over the shoulder, to keep it in its place. The sleeves of his frock are tied round his wrist; and, it being close round his neck, and the hood drawn over his head, and these confined by his cap, the water can scarcely penetrate either to his body, or into the canoe: if it should, it is taken out of the canoe with a sponge. They will put their canoes on, at the rate of seven miles an hour, by striking the water with a quick, regular motion, on each side the canoe, with a double-bladed paddle, which they hold, with both hands, in the middle.
Their fishing and hunting-implements lie ready on their canoes for use, strapped on, for safety; and differ little from those used by the Greenlanders.
Fishes common to other northern seas are found here, north of 60°. Small fish is not to be met with; but the whales are more numerous. Sea-horses are seen in prodigious numbers about the ice; and the sea-otter is an animal peculiar to this sea.
The few land-birds we saw, says Captain
Cooke,
are the same with those in Europe; but, there are many others, I had not an opportunity of knowing. Sea and water-fowls are not met with here in such numbers, nor in such variety, as in the northern parts of the Atlantic ocean.
There are no deer in Oonalashka, or any other of these islands; not have they any domestic animals, not even dogs. Hence it is evident, that the sea and rivers supply the inhabitants chiefly with food. They are obliged, also, to the sea for wood; I mean drift-wood; for, not a stick grows on any of the islands, nor on the adjacent coasts of the continent.
There are a great variety of plants at Oonalashka; and, most of them were in bloom, the latter end of June. Several of them are such as we find in Europe; and, in many parts of America, particularly in Newfoundland. Berries there are of various kinds; such as bramble-berries, cranberries, hurtle-berries, heath-berries, &c. and, also, a brown berry, somewhat the taste of a sloe, from which brandy might be distilled. Of culinary plants, they have wild purslane, pea-tops, a kind of scurvy-grass, cresses, and some others, all very palatable. On the low grounds, is plenty of grass, which grows very thick and long, and in which ca
tle might subsist at Oonalashka, the whole year, without being housed; and the soil, in many places, seems capable of producing grain, roots and vegetables, but none is cultivated.
The people of Oonalashka bury their dead on the summit of hills, and raise a little hillock over the grave. In a walk, says Captain
Cooke,
into the country, one of the natives, who attended me, pointed out several; and, one in particular, by the side of the road, over which was raised a heap of stones; and, I observed, that, every one who passed, added a stone to the number.
They are remarkably chearful and friendly among each other. The Russians keep up a reserve among them; and have no connexion with their women, merely because they are not christians. The venereal disease is general amongst them; and they are subject to cancers, which those who are afflicted with, take great pains to conceal. They do not appear to be long-lived; Captain
Cooke
saw none, seemingly, more advanced in life, than between 50 and 60.
The natives of Oonalashka, and those on the northwest side of America, resemble the Greenlanders and Eskimaux, not only in various particulars of person, dress, weapons, canoes, and the like, but in their language, which warrants this judgment, that there is great reason to believe these nations are of the same extraction. If so, there can be little doubt of a northern communication of some sort, by sea, between this side of America and the east side, through Baffin's-bay, which communication, however, may be effectually shut up against ships by ice, and other impediments.
OF THE SCHAMANE RELIGION.
HAVING had occasion to speak of the pagan religion of the Siberians and Eastern Islanders, and having entered but slightly into the doctrines of Schamanism, my reader will probably not be displeased with some further account of it; I will therefore lay before him the great outlines of it, without descending to the minutiae.
The several pagan nations that inhabit the Russian empire, are distinguished as the professors of three religions: the Schamane, that of Lama, and that of the Bramins. The last is the faith of only a small number of Indians found in this empire; the former is by far the most numerous, branching out into the different sects of Finns, Tartars, Samojedes, Eastjaiks, Manshours, Mongols, &c.
The Schamane idolatry is one of the most ancient that exists; it is the source or origin of the Lama, the Bramine, and various, other, pagan sects. This idolatrous sect is without much order or connexion, and is full of absurdity; but I will endeavour to throw it into the best general system I can, without entering into the various diversities, as followed by different sects.
Among all the Schamanes, women are held much inferior to men; and are thought to have been created merely for sensual pleasure, to people the world, and look after domestic affairs; of course, are treated with great severity and contempt. They are scarce allowed the common prerogatives of humanity; are held as impure, and reprobated by the gods; are considered as noxious during the period of their sexual revolutions; and in child-birth are supposed dangerous and fatal both to men and animals. They are prohibited the worship of idols; and are thought to defile every thing they touch. They are considered as articles of merchandize; and a woman delivered of twins or a deformed child, is thought to have had commerce with the devil.
Yet, notwithstanding this universal contempt of the female sex, they admit the women to be priestesses, and ascribe to them equal pre-eminence and power with their priests, and reverence such women as much. Both priests and priestesses are distinguished from the laity no otherwise than by their peculiar manner, and a little more knowledge of the ceremonies of their faith. Some are enthusiasts, some impostors, but the greatest number are a compound of both.
Their dress has been already described, and a plate given to represent it. (See that of Tunguse Sorcery.) The drum is the principal implement of their magic; and they pretend to beat it in such a manner, as to make spirits appear and disappear at pleasure. This drum has been particularly described when we treated of Lapland. If it was customary for priests of antiquity to follow armies to war, it is possible that the use of the drum in regiments might have originated in this religious tabor.
The principles and notions of the Schamanes are imperfect, obscure, confused, and contradictory; but they all agree in essentials. They all believe a universal God, the creator of all things; that he loves his creation; knows every thing, and is all-powerful; but pays no attention to the particular actions of man, being too great for them to offend him, and to do any thing meritorious in his sight. Of course, as he neither punishes nor rewards, it is useless to love him, and there is no reason to fear him.
Most of these heathens think that God is invisible; that he has a human figure, and that he dwells in the sun or the sky; whilst others take the sun itself to be God.
Different nations have different divinities, with different influences; but they are all supposed subordinate to the controul of the Great Creator. Some of these deities are beneficent persons, some maleficent. Of the latter,
Schaïtan
is the head of all the rest; they consider him as the most powerful being, after the supreme God; represent him as violently wicked, but think it possible to appease him; and that the Schamans, or priests, are particularly in his favour. They hold evil to be a self-existing substance, distinguished by a variety of names; but all their notions, on this head, are confused, and unconnected. These evil spirits are supposed to be lords of the earth, lords of iron, spirits of the mountains, demons of the forests, gods of insects, and to dwell in the water, under the earth, in volcanoes and in forests.
Besides these different deities, they address a certain worship to the manes of their ancestors, of the settlers of colonies, heroes, and all the priests and priestesses of Schamanism; attributing to these demi-gods, a perfect knowledge of every thing below, and a power to procure happiness, or succour, to their applicants and votaries.
The notions they have of the world, and the universe, are confined within the narrow bounds of that knowledge they are able to acquire in the desarts. They conceive the world to be eternal; and, that future life, is but a continuation of the present.
Man, according to them, is composed of body and soul; is free, and his actions arbitrary; and, as the gods are indifferent to the actions of man, he is at liberty to act as he pleases. Health, a thriving flock, a numerous progeny, and a frequent enjoyment of sensual embraces, constitute their supreme felicity; misfortunes, and the want of these enjoyments, are their greatest evils.
All the professors of Schamanism, believe an existence after death; but have such uncomfortable ideas of that state, as to dread it. They suppose death to be a change of the present life, into a subterraneous one, of the same kind; but purely intellectual and spiritual, though gloomy and melancholy. They attribute a soul to every animal; and, though they are convinced, that every thing rots by dissolution, they bury, with the dead, implements for his use in the other world. The more eastern Siberians, the Kurilians, and Kamtschadales, maintain, like the Mahomedans, that the future life, though a continuation of the present, will be more perfect, and their enjoyments greater; that they shall possess more wealth and finer women; of course, they meet death with ardor, and often put an end to their existence here, with the utmost coolness.
The ceremonies of their worship differ, according to the different nations; but all consist in prayers, the worship of the beneficent divinities, sacrificing offerings, magic rites, and superstitious mummery. The adorations, both public and private, prove, that many of these nations fear the gods, and several discover a sincere devotion. All their prayers are very laconic. The laity, by short, but devout invocations, pray for a supply of what they want. The supplicant turns his face to the sun, to a mountain, a river, or an idol; and invokes them, as do the Roman Catholics, with great fervency, calling on every saint by his proper name.
Their magic ceremonies are designed to appease malignant spirits; and are so absurd, and contain so much visible imposture, that we cannot allow these people that indulgent pity we owe to men under the guidance of ignorant and deluded priests. The laity have honest and good designs, in their idol-worship; but, the priests, impose on their simplicity; and, we find, that fraud and fanaticism, are not incompatible in the human mind.
But, in spite of all that obscurity and confusion, which prevail in the religion of the Schamans, and its mythology, we cannot but discover, through them, the general notions of natural religion, as well as various ceremonies of Mosaic law. The sacred fire, the oblations, the adorations, the opinions with respect to women, with many other articles of Schamane faith, seem to be borrowed from the ceremonial of Judaism. The chief causes that contribute to perpetuate their errors, are, the sensuality and materialism of all their opinions; their wild and vagabond way of life; their extreme poverty, and, of course, their total want of education. All these obstacles, in conjunction, are a bar to their improvements; but if, in a future period, these, or the greatest part of them, should be removed; there is every reason to suppose, from their tractable and excellent disposition, they may be induced to shake off their errors; and, that the christian religion, will be transplanted into these, the remotest regions of the earth.
A DESCRIPTION OF LITTLE RUSSIA. From
Perry, Hanway, King, Wraxall, Coxe,
and others.
HAVING treated largely of the wide, extended and uncivilized parts of this vast empire, it is necessary I should give my readers some account of that part which is called Little Russia; and which includes the kingdoms of Moscow and Astracan; parts into which, within these 50 years, European manners have been introduced: and, in doing this, I will resume that system I had adopted in the first volume of this work; but which the celebrated journal of
Pallas
induced me to drop, whilst speaking of Siberia and Tartary.
CHAP. I.
Of the Country, Climate, and Productions.
THE country comprised under the name of Russia, or the Russias, is of greater extent than all the rest of Europe; or, than was the Roman empire, in the zenith of its power. It stretches from the Baltic, and Sweden, on the west, beyond Kamtschatka, and the Oriental Isles, 5,000 miles, and upwards, eastward, to the most western shore of the American continent; which, as I have already observed, is divided from the eastern coast of Siberia, by a streight of only 13 leagues in breadth. On the north, it is bounded by the Frozen Ocean; and extends, on the south-east, to China and Persia. The greatest part of this empire lies in Asia; of this, we have already treated; I shall, therefore, confine myself now to that part which lies in Europe.
Little Russia then extends from the 47th degree of north-latitude, to the 70th, or further north, but is scarce habitable nearer the pole; and, from the 21st degree of longitude to the 70th, reckoning from the meridian of London. In the southern provinces, the longest day does not exceed fifteen hours and a half; whereas, in the most northern, the sun does not set, in summer-time, for the space of two months together; and here, during the winter, which generally continues seven months, the whole country is covered with snow, a yard or two deep, and the rivers are all frozen up. It is natural to suppose, therefore, that where the climate is so various, there must be as great a diversity of soil.
Dr.
King,
who resided eleven years in Russia, says, that the cold, at Petersburgh, which is in the latitude of 60°, is, during the months of December, January, and February, usually, by
Fahrenheit
's thermometer, from eight to 15, and 20 degrees below 0; that is, from 40 to 52 degrees below the freezing point; that the inhabitants have very little comfort in their winter-days, and spend most of their time by the fire-side; for, though the sun may be a little above the horizon, for
wo or three hours, it is seldom seen, on account of the thick fogs, which so darken the air, that it may be rather called dawn, than day-light. The cold weather begins in August; and, every one is wrapped in furs till May following. The ice, in their rivers, is a yard thick. It is difficult, says Dr.
King,
for an inhabitant of a temperate clime, to have any idea of their cold. When a person walks out, in winter, the cold makes the eyes water; and, that water, freezes on the eye-lashes, so as to hang in isicles. These isicles may be seen hanging at the chin of their peasants, who wear their beards, like a lump of ice; but, even in this state, the icy beard defends the glands of the throat, which the soldiers, who wear no beards, are obliged to guard, by tying a handkerchief under the chin. All the parts of the face are liable to be frozen, though the person so frozen is not himself sensible of it; but is commonly apprised of it by those who meet him, and advised to rub his face with snow, which is their mode of thawing it, for the part frozen always turns white; should this be omitted, and the person so frozen pproach a fire, or dip his ears, nose, or chin, in warm water, the frozen part will instantly mortify, and drop off. In severe winters, birds have been so benumbed, as to be unable to fly; and carters sitting in their loaded carriages, have been found frozen to death. When the thermometer has been at 25 degrees below 0, boiling water thrown up into the air, and spread by an engine, has fallen to the ground in ice. But, notwithstanding this severity of the cold, the inhabitants have such various means to guard against it, that they suffer much less from it, than might be expected. Mr.
Coxe
says, that, when he was there, in January, the mercury in
Fahrenheit
's thermometer, fell to 63 below the freezing point, and yet it did not detain him at home; he walked out, as usual, with no other precaution than his pelisse, fur-boots and cap; and, as the sun shone bright, he found it by no means unpleasant. The common people continued at their work, as usual; and the drivers plied in the streets, with their sledges, seemingly unaffected with the frost; their beards were incrusted with ice, and the horses covered with isicles. The people did not, during this extreme cold, add to their ordinary cloathing. They are careful to preserve their extremities, by covering their legs, hands, and head, with fur; but leave their necks quite bare, and their breasts only covered with a coarse shirt. During this time, continues Mr.
Coxe,
many women were employed in washing in the river, making holes in the ice with a hatchet, dipping their linen into the water with their bare hands, and beating it with flat sticks. The ice formed again, almost as soon as they broke it; and, yet they would stand hours at this work—a proof that the human body may be brought to endure all extremes.
Coachmen and servants, waiting for their masters, have been killed by the frost: to guard, as much as possible, against this, great fires, of whole trees, piled up, are made, in the court yards of the palace, and most frequented parts of the town, to warm the air. The rain that falls in this country yearly, exceeds that which falls in England, in the proportion of 22 to 19.
Russia is, in general, a flat country, except in the north. From Petersburgh to Pekin in China, through Independant Tartary, scarce a mountain is to be seen; and, from Petersburgh to the north of France, by Dantzic, Hamburgh, and Amsterdam, there is not the smallest hill.
The most considerable rivers are, 1st, the Wolga, which, after traversing the greatest part of Muscovy, in a course of 3000 miles, empties itself into the Caspian sea. It is, in most places, so shallow, that vessels, drawing above five feet water, can scarcely float, except in flood-times, when the largest flat-bottomed vessels, even carrying 600 tuns, find sufficient water. The stream, in common, does not run more than one mile an hour; but, in flood-time, it will run three miles. The water-men, who navigate this river, do it by warping. They have three boats to carry out these warps, which they take in forwards, and thus get on against the stream, when the wind is not with them, 30 miles a-day. Their barges are so large as to carry from 150 to 200 men. In all its long course, it has not a cataract to interrupt the navigation; and, by it, the city of Moscow has a communication not only with all the southern parts of Russia, but even into Persia, Georgia, Tartary, and all the countries bordering on the Caspian sea.
The Don is another great river; divides the eastern part of Russia from Asia; and, in its course eastwards, approaches so near the Wolga, that it was intended to cut a canal between the two; and it would have been done, but for the interruption of the Tartars. This river runs near 400 miles, and empties itself into the sea of Asoph. The Dnieper, which is likewise one of the largest rivers in Europe, has thirteen cataracts within a small distance; rises
ar the source of the Wolga, in the forest of the Volkenski (a forest of 150 mile in length, and that reaches almost to the gates of Moscow), about 100 miles from Smolensko; separates the Ukraine from Poland, and discharges itself into the Black Sea. By the acquisition of the province of Mohilef, it is included within the Russian territories. The northern, and north-eastern provinces, are, in a manner, desart; but, the rest of the country abounds with forests.
The principal cities are, Petersburgh, Moscow, Novogorod, Twer, Smolensko, Kiova, Riga, Archangel, Casan, and Astrachan. Of some of these I have already spoken.
Russia being, for the most part, a level country, and extremely well watered by lakes and rivers, is abundantly fruitful. The communication of one part of the empire with another, is laid open, by roads and navigable canals; so that, the northern parts, which wanted corn and fruits, so plentiful in the south, are now supplied with both. In the spring of the year, as soon as the snow is gone, which generally lies on the ground three months, the warm weather succeeds, every thing looks green, and the tulips, lilies of the valley, and many other fine flowers and herbs, spring up spontaneously, without culture; and vegetation is very quick, in all its branches. The shortness of the summer does not allow the grain time to ripen well; but the peasants contrive to dry it, in the following way: they construct a wooden building, something like the shell of a cottage, without windows; under this building is a large hollow, on which a fire being made, the new cut corn, in ear, is laid on the floor, till dry; after this, it is hung on frames, in the open air, and then threshed. Pastures and meadows are very prolific; but they have no fruits, except strawberries and rasberries: as to the finer fruits, such as pines, apricots, grapes, pears, and cherries, they cannot be obtained, but in hot-houses. They have, however, excellent melons, pomegranates, and pines, from Astrachan. Grapes are brought, from Astrachan, to the Empress, every three days; a distance not less than 1500 miles. They are preserved in sand, and carried between two horses, supported in the manner of a litter, and are 21 days on their journey.
The Russes have a saying, That they are very rich in fish and bread; and, it may be added, they have good store of horses, cattle, and wild game. Provisions are so cheap, that good beef may be bought for three farthings a pound; mutton and pork in proportion; and bread, at about one sixth part of the usual price in England. The broad-tailed sheep are brought from Astrachan; and are, in flavour, something like venison.
On account of the severe cold in this country, not only water-fowl, cranes, swans, ducks, geese, snipes, &c. but almost all sorts of land-birds, fly to the southward, in winter, in infinite numbers; and back again in the spring, when the snow disappears; which, in the latitude of Moscow, is not till about the end of April.
Their horses are not of a large breed; but, like those of Scotland, hardy and serviceable; and are seldom shod, either in summer or winter. They have greyhounds, but no hounds. Their wild beasts are, bears, foxes, boars, elks, deer, wolves, wild horses, and wild sheep. Captain
Perry
says, he ate part of a wild sheep, which was pursued into a river by a wolf, and he thought it more tender and palatable than tame mutton. They have, also, martens, sables, ermines, and two kinds of hares, one of which turns white in the winter, and changes again in summer.
There is no country, in Europe, better stocked with bees; and their woods, accordingly, afford great plenty of honey; and the wealthy burn nothing but wax-candles. The woods, and gardens, about Moscow, are full of singing-birds; but there being few in the neighbourhood of Petersburgh, government purchased as many as came to six or seven hundred pounds, and let them fly into the woods about that capital, where, it is said, they have multiplied exceedingly.
With respect to the mines of this country, they have been treated of fully, when describing Tartary and Siberia.
CHAP. II.
Of the People, and chief Cities.
NOTHING can be more erroneous, than the different accounts of the population of this empire.
Voltaire
tells us, that, by a list, taken in 1747, of all the males that paid the poll-tax, including boys and old men, the number amounted to near seven millions; and, if we reckon three times this number, for females, and persons not registered, it will make about 20 millions; and, to these add, 350,000 soldiers, and 200,000 nobility and clergy, and foreigners, exempted from the poll-tax, and the number will be about 20 millions and a half; which, with the conquered Tartars, may be estimated at 24 millions. But Mr.
Coxe,
in a much better calculation, in 1764, thinks, they may surely be stated at near 23 millions.
The Russians are, generally speaking, a personable people, rather Dutch-built, and inclined to be corpulent; at least, this is what they admire: they are hardy, vigorous, and patient of labour. Their complexions differ from those of the English, or Scots; but the women think an addition of red paint, heightens their beauty. Their eye-sight seems to be defective; perhaps owing to the snow. The army possess a great share of passive and active valour; will live hard, and submit to the strictest discipline. The temper of the Russians, however, has not been much admired: they are held to have good parts, but to be very deceitful, and not to have a proper sense of shame. Captain
Perry,
who was some time in that country, in the beginning of the present century, says, that the foreigners there used to say, That if you wish to know whether a Russ is an honest man, look in the palm of his hand, and, if you don't find hair grow there, never trust him. When they flatter and sooth, and profess, with oaths and asseverations, a great respect for you, be well upon your guard, for they mean to betray you; and so far are they wanting, continues he, in a sense of shame, that they hold it a commendable quality, to be a sharper; and say, that such a man, understands the world, and will thrive: but, of an honest man, they say,
Un cloup nemeit shiet;
he is a blockhead, and knows not how to live. And, so little regard have they for their word, and so void of any notion of real honour, that they have not a word, in their language, to express it. The czar, Peter, took a great deal of pains to inculcate proper principles into them; and they do not now, deserve so severe a character. Mr.
Coxe,
who was there very lately, says, even the peasants, in their common intercourse, are remarkably polite to each other. They take off their caps at meeting, bow ceremoniously, and frequently and usually exchange a salute. They accompany their ordinary discourse with much action, and innumerable gestures; and are exceedingly servile in their expressions of deference to their superiors. In accosting a person of consequence, they prostrate themselves, and even touch the ground with their heads— a kind of eastern homage. They are greedy, however, of money; and almost always demand previous payment, for any article they sell; and they seem, in general, says Mr.
Coxe,
much inclined to thieving. It was found necessary to place a guard by the carriage, at night, where we stopped, or every article in it would have disappeared before morning.
Among the better class of people, continues Mr.
Coxe,
nothing can exceed their hospitality. We could never pay a morning-visit to any nobleman, without being detained to dinner. The principal persons of distinction, keep open tables, and are highly obliged to persons who resort to them, without ceremony. Their tables are served with great profusion and taste. They will, at the same time, have sterlet (a kind of sturgeon from the Wolga), veal from Archangel, mutton from Astrachan, beef from the Ukraine, and pheasants from Hungary and Bohemia; and their common wines are, claret, burgundy, champaigne; and English beer, and porter, in perfection. Though they have adopted the delicacies of French cookery, they despise not the solid joints of the English. Before dinner, even in the houses of persons of the first distinction, a small table is spread, in a corner of the drawing-room, covered with plates of caviare, dried and pickled herrings, smoked ham, or tongue, bread, butter and cheese; with bottles of different
liqueurs;
a little of which is generally tasted before dinner. Their usual hour of dining is three; their entertainments are regulated according to the French ceremonial; the wine being circulated, during meals; and, the dishes are no sooner removed, than the company retire into another room, and are served with coffee, gentlemen as well as ladies.
Drunkenness is so common among the lower class of people, that it is scarcely esteemed a vice. Captain
Perry
says, that, if we ride through Moscow on a holiday, we shall see both priests and people drunk upon the ground; and, if you go to help one up, he will say, by way of excuse, It is holiday-time. Nay, he says further, that their women of quality are so little ashamed of drinking to excess, that they will acknowledge their having been drunk, and return thanks to their friends who made them so. This was, however, near a century ago; Mr.
Coxe
says now, that, among persons of rank, they never deviate from the strictest sobriety.
Mr.
Wraxall
tells us (and he travelled there in 1774), That the females in this country are all forced, and brought forward in despite of nature; that, during the winter-months, they are constantly in apartments heated by stoves to a great degree, from which they enter, upon a hasty, but hot summer, of two or three months. The consequence of this, added to their warm baths, of which they are very fond, is, that they want, like every other artificial production, the genuine flavor, which nature only can give; that charming firmness, and elasticity of flesh, so indispensibly requisite to constitute beauty. The ladies esteemed as beauties here, are ponderous and massy; and loveliness seems to consist in a woman's weighing near 200 lb. In giving a description of some of the principal cities, I shall have occasion to speak of the people again, of course will drop the subject for the present.
Petersburgh, the capital of the empire, was founded by Peter the Great, in the beginning of this century, and has amazingly increased in size within these fifty years. At the death of Peter, it did not contain above 80,000 inhabitants, and now the Russians assert that there are 500,000; but this, says Mr.
Marshall,
is an exaggeration. The number, says Mr.
Coxe,
is about 130,000; and the city is, perhaps, the only one in Europe where there are more births than deaths.
References
A
Admiralty Quarter
B
Isd . of St . Petersburgh
C
Vassili Ostrog
D
Suburbs of Vassili Ostrog.
E
Suburbs of Livonia
F
Suburbs of Moscow
G
Suburbs of St . Alexander Nevski
a
Admiralty
b
Imperial Palace
c
Equestrian. Statue of Peter the Great
d
Academy of Arts
e
Corps de Cadets
f
Convent des Demoiselles Nobles
g
Market
h
Cathedral
i
Academy of Sciences
k
Barracks for the 3 Reg•• . of Foot Guards
l
Church of St . Isaac
m
Moika R.
n
Canal of Catharine
o
Fontanka R.
p
Globe of Gottorp
q
Botanick Garden
r
Summer Palace & Gard
s
English Chapel
t
Hospital for the Sea and Land Forces
u
St . Alexander Nevski's Monastery
w
Garden to the Corps of Cadets
Plan of the City
of St . PETERSBURGH
This palace of the Empress is an amazing structure. Indeed all the capital houses are rather great than beautiful; the size is all that strike us; and they are stuck so thick with ornaments, as to leave us scarce room to judge of their proportion. The Italian architecture is mixed with the Dutch; and the whole forms but very inelegant buildings, in which true taste is sacrificed to splendor. If the eye does not scrutinize into the serate parts of the buildings, but takes in only the streets at large, the city may be pronounced a very fine one. Many of the houses are erected with wood, the sides consisting of square-sided pieces of timber, laid upon each other. The roofs are thin, deal spars, laid pretty thick, and lined with laths, covered with turf, or bark. The houses are seldom more than one story high; and those of the common people consist of but one room; but the public buildings have throughout a very handsome appearance, and are, like every thing else, on a larger scale than elsewhere. The churches have generally a large cupola, encircled with four smaller ones, and covered with gilt copper, which has a fine effect in the sunshine.
The river Neva, which runs through the city, is in most places broader than the Thames at London; is deep, rapid, and as clear as crystal. Its banks exhibit the most grand and lively scenes; they are lined on each side with a continued range of handsome buildings, and it has one of the finest walks in the world; not a quay, but a parade, a mile long, which is still to be continued further in length. It is embanked by a parapet-wall, and has a pavement of hewn granite. Over the river is a bridge of pontoons; but a Russian peasant has projected the sublime plan of throwing a wooden bridge, of a single arch, across it, where the river is only 680 feet wide, and which is to be built with all expedition; it is to be roofed over, and to tower 168 feet from the water. The road is not to be carried over the arch, but to hang to, or be suspended in the middle, below it. The estimate for building this bridge is 60,000l. sterling. The bridge is upon the same principle with that of Schaffhausen, excepting that the mechanism is more complicated, and that the road is not so level; the ascent of the road of the bridge at Schaffhausen being barely four-tenths of an inch to a foot. The person, whose name is
Kulibin,
who projected this bridge, is merely a Russian peasant; has a long beard, and wears the common dress of his country; he receives, however, a pension from the empress, and is encouraged to follow the bent of his mechanical genius, which is truly uncommon. Though rather foreign to our subject, it may not be unentertaining to our readers to have the following account of a repeating-watch that he made. It is about the size of an egg; within, is represented the tomb of our Saviour, with the stone at the entrance, and the centinels on duty; suddenly, the stone is removed, the centinels fall down, the angels appear, the women enter the sepulchre, and the same chant is heard which is performed on Easter Eve.—This watch is deposited in the Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh.
One of the noblest monuments paid to the veneration of the founder of this city, is the equestrian statue of that monarch, cast in bronze, by that celebrated French statuary, Monsieur
Falconet,
at the expence of the Empress, and erected in the area before the palace. A description of it, being a wonderful undertaking, cannot displease our readers: The pedestal on which it stands, is a stupendous mass of reddish granite, which was discovered, half buried, in the midst of a morass, at some distance from the city. The morass was drained, to get it out; and a road was cut, through a forest, to pass it. After it was reduced, it weighed 1500 tons. It was drawn, with 40 men seated on the top of it, by a windlass, and large friction balls, placed in grooves, and fixed on each side of the road, to the banks of the river; on which it was conveyed, in a vessel constructed purposely to receive it, to the place where it now stands. At its base, it is 42 feet long, 36 at the top, 21 thick, and 17 high—a bulk greatly surpassing, in weight, the most boasted monuments of Roman grandeur. The statue is of colossal size; and represents the monarch in the attitude of mounting a precipice, the summit of which he has nearly attained. He is crowned with laurel; in a loose, Asiatic vest, and sitting on a bear-skin housing; his right hand stretched as in the act of blessing his people, and his left holding the reins. The horse is rearing on his hind legs; and his tail, which is full and flowing, slightly touches a bronze serpent, artfully contrived to assist in supporting the vast weight of the statue, in due equilibrium. It was erected in 1782; and its erection attended with great solemnity. A proclamation was offered, at the time, to pardon all criminals, under sentence of death; all deserters, who should return to their duty, within a limited time; and all convicts, condemned to hard labour, provided they had not been guilty of murder.
In 1706,
Peter
began the foundation of the fortress. Its walls are of brick, and strengthened with five regular bastions; they encircle a small island, of about half a mile in circumference, formed by the Great and Little Neva. Within the walls are barracks for a small garrison, several wards used as a common jail, and dungeons for the confinement of state-prisoners. In the fortress, is a small arsenal, which, among other military stores, con
ains some antient cannon, cast in the middle of the 16th century. In a separate building of the fortress, is the mint. The gold and silver are sent from the mines of Siberia; and the separation is performed in this laboratory. Large quantities of Dutch dollars are melted down here, for the purpose of coining into rubles; as half the duties are discharged in that money, by all foreign merchants, excepting the English, who are exempted, by treaty; but as these, and the gold and silver obtained from the mines of Siberia, are, by no means, sufficient for the money in circulation, a considerable quantity of both these metals is annually imported. There is here a very ingenious and simple piece of mechanism—a machine for stamping the coin; which must not be omitted, because it was an invention of her present majesty. Within the fortress, is a four-oared boat, called,
The Little Grandsire;
which is secured, with great veneration, in a brick building, constructed for that purpose; and preserved, as a memorial to future ages, of its being the origin of the Russian fleet. Adjacent to the fortress, stands a wooden hovel, dignified, by its having served for the habitation of
Peter the Great,
while the fortress was constructing. It still exists in its original state, and stands under a brick building, purposely erected to preserve it from destruction. Near this house is another four-oared boat, the work of
Peter
's own hands.
The cathedral of St. Peter and Paul, is in a different state of architecture, from that usually employed in the construction of churches for the service of the Greek religion. Instead of domes, it has a spire of copper, gilt; the highest part of which rises above 240 feet from the ground. Its interior decorations of paintings, &c. are in an elegant and modern stile. In this cathedral, are deposited the remains of
Peter the Great;
and of all the successive sovereigns (excepting the late, unfortunate
Peter the Third
), who are ranged in coffins, side by side; but have not, any of them, marble monuments erected to their memories, bearing only inscriptions in the Russian tongue on their tombs, which are shaped like square coffins. Devotion has not been wanting, to add her magnificence, and to erect places of worship, in almost every part.
The market upon the Neva, is too remarkable to be omitted.—At the conclusion of the long fast, which closes on the 24th of December, O. S. the Russians lay in their provisions, for the remaining part of the winter: for this purpose, an annual market, or fair, which lasts three days, is held upon the river, near the fortress. A long street, above a mile in length, is lined, on each side, with an immense store of provisions, sufficient for the supply of the capital, for the next three months. Many thousand raw carcases of oxen, sheep, hogs, pigs, together with geese, fowls, and every species of frozen food, are exposed for sale. The larger quadrupedes are grouped, in various circles, upright, their hind legs fixed in the snow, with their heads and fore-legs turned towards each other. These tower above the rest, and occupy the hindermost row; next to them succeeds a regular series of animals, descending gradually to the smallest; intermixed with poultry and game, hanging in festoons, and garnished with heaps of fish, butter and eggs. The most distant quarters help to supply this vast store of provisions; and the finest veal has been sent, by land-carriage, as far as from Archangel. Beef is sold at one penny the Russian pound, that is, fourteen ounces and an half English, pork at five farthings, and mutton at three halfpence; a goose for ten pence, a pig for eight pence, and all other articles in proportion. In order to render their frozen food fit for dressing, it is first thawed in cold water.
The court of Petersburgh has long enjoyed the reputation of being one of the most brilliant in Europe. Rich cloaths are still the passion of the Russians; and, though sumptuary laws have been often talked of, and set on foot, they have never properly been carried into execution. Mr.
Coxe,
who, with Lord
Herbert,
was presented to the Empress, on the birth-day of the Grand Duke, who is next heir to the throne, and when a brilliant court was assembled, gives us the following account of it. At the entrance of the drawing-room, stood two centinels of the foot-guards; their uniform, was a green coat, with red cuffs and cape, white waistcoat and breeches: they had silver helmets, fastened under the chin with silver clasps, and ornamented with an ample plume of red, yellow, black, and white feathers. Within the drawing-room, at the doors of the passage leading to her majesty's apartments, were two soldiers of the knights body-guard; a corps more sumptuously accoutred than any in Europe. They wore casques, like those of the ancients, with a rich plumage of black feathers; and their whole dress was in the same s
le; chains, and broad plates of solid silver, were braided over their uniforms, so as to wear the appearance of a coat of mail; and their boots were richly ornamented with the same metal.
In the drawing-room were a numerous assembly of foreign ministers, Russian nobility, and officers, in their different uniforms, waiting the arrival of the Empress, who was attending divine service in the chapel. There, amid a prodigious concourse of nobles, stood the Empress foremost by herself, behind a railing; the only distinction by which her place was marked. Immediately next to her, stood the Great Duke and Duchess; and, behind, an indiscriminate throng of courtiers. The Empress bowed, and frequently crossed herself, agreeable to the forms of the Greek church. When she left the chapel, she was preceded by the chief officers of her houshold, the mistress of the robes, her maids of honour, and other ladies of the bed-chamber, advancing two by two. Her majesty followed, with slow and solemn pace, walking with great pomp, and bowing, continually, to the right and left. She stopped at the entrance of the drawing-room, and spoke, with great affability, to the foreign ministers, whilst they kissed her hand. Her dress was a robe, with a short train; and a vest, with sleeves reaching to the wrist, like a polonese. The vest was of gold brocade, and the robe of light, green silk. Her hair was dressed low, and lightly powdered; she wore a cap set thick with diamonds, and had on a great deal of rouge.
In the evening was a ball at court, which is always held on the third day. The Great Duke and Dutchess opened it with a minuet; after which, these great personages danced a minuet each with the principal nobility; the Duke with a lady, and the Dutchess with a gentleman: several other couples dancing minuets in different parts of the circle. These minuets were succeeded by Polish dances; and these, by English country-dances. During the latter, the Empress came in, more richly apparelled than in the morning, and wearing a crown of diamonds upon her head.
On her majesty's appearance, the ball was suspended; and, the principal people paid their respects to the Empress. This done, she ascended an elevated seat, and the dancing was resumed. After this, she withdrew to an inner room to cards, and played at Macao, at an Imperial, or two-pound a game, with the foreign ministers. Her majesty retired about 10, and all was over.
The Empress has a drawing-room every Sunday morning, about 12. The richness and splendor of the Russian court surpasses all the ideas which the most elaborate descriptions can suggest; retaining many traces of ancient Asiatic pomp, blended with European refinement. An immense retinue of courtiers always precede, and follow, the Empress; the costliness and glare of their apparel, and a profusion of precious stones, create a splendor, of which the magnificence of other courts can give only a faint idea. The court-dress of the men is in the French fashion: that of the ladies, is a gown and petticoat, with a small hoop; the gown has long hanging sleeves, and a short train, and is of a different colour from the petticoat. The ladies wore, in 1777, very lofty head-dresses, and were not sparing of rouge. The men wear diamonds, as well as the women. Their buttons, buckles, sword-hilts, and epaulets, are composed of several rows of pearls; and a diamond star is scarce a distinction. This passion for jewels seems to pervade the lower class of people; for, even private families abound with them; and the wife of a common, Russian burgher, will appear, with a head-dress, or girdle of pearls and other precious stones, worth two or three hundred pounds.
At certain times, the Empress dines in public. On the 2d of December, she gives an entertainment to the officers of the regiment, of which she, as sovereign, is the colonel. At this time she is dressed in the uniform of the regiment, in a habit resembling a riding-dress. They sit with her, and she is very attentive to them. At another time, she dines with the knights of the several orders, and is then habited like them. At these public dinners, she hands each person, present, a glass of wine, who, after a low obeisance, drinks it off. At the conclusion of this ceremony, which is generally about one o'clock, her majesty leads the way, into an adjoining apartment. She takes her place in the middle of the table, and the officers are ranged on each side, according to their respective ranks. Her majesty, upon these occasions, condescends to help the soup herself, and pays, throughout, the greatest attention to her guests. After the repast, which usually lasts about an hour, her majesty rises from table, and withdraws.
The Empress, on days of high ceremony, generally wears a crown of diamonds, of immense value; and appears with the ribbands of the order of St. Andrew and Merit, flung both over the same shoulder, with the collars of their orders, and the two stars emblazoned, one above the other, upon her vest.
The palace of Peterhof, situated about 20 miles from the capital, has gardens, which are celebrated for their taste and elegance, and are the frequent scenes of the most splendid entertainments. They have, from their number of
jet d' eaus,
&c. been compared to those of Versailles: and indeed, in one respect, they are far superior; for, those of the latter only play, upon particular occasions, while those of Peterhof are perpetual. In the garden is an elegant pavilion, constructed by order of the Empress, when she was Great Dutchess. It contains eighteen apartments, each furnished in different tastes; namely, the Greek, Turkish, Chinese, &c. and is situated in the middle of a thick wood. Its approaches being circular, we have not the least glimpse, until we arrive at it; and, as it generally causes an emotion of surprize, it has, for that reason, received the appellation of
Ha!
I shall not detain the reader, with a description of the silver dolphins, and gilded statues, which are scattered in great profusion; but there are some few particulars, which, as they may afford entertainment, I must not omit. These are, two gladiators, placed in a bason of water: they are represented, not with the antient weapons, a sword and buckler, but with the more modern instruments of war, a brace of pistols; which, as they point to each other in threatening attitudes, the water gushes impetuously from the barrels.
Among the numerous buildings the garden contains, is one erected by Peter I. and by him called
Monplaisir,
the name by which it is now distinguished. He conconstructed this small house, close to the gulf of Finland, from a prepossession, that the air from the water, was the most wholesome for his constitution. It is brick, of one story, and roofed with iron; the windows reach from the ground to the top, which, added to the length and lowness of the building, gives it the appearance of a green-house. The habitable part, consists of a hall, and six small rooms; all furnished in the neatest and plainest manner. The mantle-pieces are ornamented with curious, old porcelain, which he greatly prized, as being brought into Russia, when the communication was first open with China. The bed-room is small, white-washed, and the floor covered with a coloured sail-cloth. It contains a barrack-bedstead, without curtains. Several pictures of himself are here, under the character of
Master Peter,
when he worked at Sardam.
The mountain of sledges, or, as some travellers term it, the Flying Mountain, in the gardens of Peterhof, is a most extraordinary building, and merits particular observation; and for which I shall quote Mr.
Coxe.
— It stands in the middle of an oblong area, enclosed by an open colonade, with a flat roof; is railed in, for the convenience of holding spectators. The circumference of this colonade is, at least, half a mile. In the middle of the area, stands the Flying Mountain, stretching, nearly, from one end to the other. It is a wooden building, supported upon pillars, representing an uneven surface of ground, or a mountain, composed of three princpal ascents, gradually diminishing in height, with an intermediate space, to resemble vallies; from top to bottom, is a floored way, in which three parallel grooves are formed. It is thus used, a small carriage, containing one person, being placed in the center groove upon the highest point, goes with great rapidity down one hill; the velocity which it requires, in its descent, carries it up a second, and it continues to move, in a similar manner, until it arrives at the bottom of the area, where it rolls, for a considerable way, on the level surface, and stops before it attains the boundary. It is then placed in one of the side-grooves, and drawn up, by means of a cord, fixed to a windlass. At the top of the mountain, is a handsome apartment, for the accommodation of the court, and principal nobility. There is also room for many thousand spectators within the colonade, and upon its roof; but her present majesty does not seem so fond of this diversion, as the late empress. These elegant gardens are frequently illuminated in the most superb manner.
The winter-palace at Petersburgh, is built of brick, stuccoed white, and was erected by the late empress, Elizabeth; it is very large, and very heavy. It is not yet quite finished, like almost every thing else in Russia. The situation is very lively; on the banks of the Neva, and in the center of the town. Contiguous to it, is a small palace, built by the present Empress, called,
The Hermitage,
communicating with the palace, by means of a covered gallery. When her majesty resides in this part of the building, she is in retreat, and there is no drawing-room, or court; from this it takes its appellation; but bears no other resemblance to a hermitage, except in its name; the apartments being extremely spacious, and decorated in a superb stile of regal magnificence. To this favourite spot, the Empress usually repairs for an hour or two every day; and, on a Thursday evening, gives a private ball and supper to the principal persons who form her court; foreign ministers, and foreign noblemen, being seldom invited. At this entertainment, all ceremony is said to be banished, as far as is consistent with that respect which is paid to a great sovereign. The attendance of servants is excluded, while the supper, and various refreshments, are presented on small tables, which rise through trap-doors. There are two galleries of paintings, which have been lately purchased, at an immense expence, in Italy.
A winter, and summer-garden, comprised within the scite of the building, are singular curiosities, and such as do not, perhaps, occur in any other palace in Europe. The summer-garden, in the true Asiatick stile, occupies the whole level top of the edifice. The winter-garden is entirely roofed, and surrounded with glass-frames; it is an high and spacious hot-house, laid out in gravel-walks, ornamented with parterres of flowers, orange-trees, and other shrubs; and peopled with several birds of sundry sorts, and various climates, flitting from tree to tree. This exhibits a most pleasing effect; and is wonderfully delightful, when contrasted with the dismal and dreary winter-season, in Russia.
Before I quit Petersburgh, I must observe, that, from its low and marshy situation, it is much subject to inundations; which have, occasionally, risen so high, as to threaten the town with a total submersion. These floods are chiefly occasioned by a west, or south-west wind; which, blowing directly from the gulph, obstructs the current of the Neva, and causes a vast accumulation of its waters; but these floods become less and less alarming, from the gradual raising of the ground, by buildings, and other causes.
In the evening of the 9th of September, 1777, a most violent storm of wind, blowing at first S. W. and afterwards W. raised the Neva, and its various branches, to so great a height, that, at five in the morning, the waters poured over the banks, and suddenly overflowed the town, and vast numbers of the people were drowned. The torrent rose, in several streets, to the depth of four-feet-and-an-half, and over-turned, by its rapidity, various buildings and bridges. About seven, the wind shifting to N. W. the flood fell as suddenly; and, at mid-day, most of the streets, which, in the morning, could only be passed in boats, became dry. For a short time, the river rose ten feet seven inches above its ordinary level.
About 20 miles from Petersburgh, by water, lies the island Retusari, a long slip of land, near 10 miles in circumference, and containing at present about 30,000 inhabitants, including the sailors and garrison; the former amounting to 12,000, the latter to 1,500 men. On the south-eastern extremity of this island is built the town of Cronstadt, defended, towards the sea, by wooden piers, projecting into the water; and, towards the land, by ramparts and bastions. It is a very straggling place, and occupies, like all Russian towns, a larger space of ground than the number of dwellings seem to require. This island was fortified for the security of the Russian fleet; for, on the south side of the island, is the only passage, for ships of burthen, up to Petersburgh, through a narrow channel.
It was in the fortress of Cronstadt that
Peter III.
hoped to have secured himself at the time of the late revolution; but the present Empress, anticipating his intention, had secured it; and
Peter,
not having the courage to attempt to land, returned back to Oranienbaum, where resigning all power into her hands, this mighty revolution was effected in a few hours, almost without any confusion or uproar.
Peter
was then secured within the citadel; and on the ninth day consequent to his seizure, it was reported he had a disorder in his bowels, and, soon after, his death was announced.
Moscow, of which I have already treated very fully in the second volume, is, in rank, the second city of this empire, though it was formerly the first. It is situated in 55 degrees, 45 minutes, and 45 seconds of northern latitude. Here the chief nobles, who do not belong to the court of the Empress, reside; and here support a large number of retainers. They love to gratify their taste for a ruder, and more expensive magnificence, in the ancient style of feudal grandeur; and are not, as at Petersburgh, eclipsed by the superior splendor of the court.
There is a sort of savage and barbarous grandeur in their taste, which here appears in the edifices and productions of Athenian sculpture or architecture. The Empress has begun to erect a palace, which is designed to be two or three English miles in circumference. The city itself is an immense aggregate of villages; and the Muscovite lords commonly go near forty of our miles to make morning visits to each other. From the windings of the river, and from many eminences which are covered with groves of fine, tall trees; and from numerous gardens and lawns that open to the water, the city has a most pleasing, airy appearance. In short, according to
Marshall,
it is a finer city than Petersburgh.
Novogorod is one of the most ancient cities in Russia; and no place ever filled the mind with more melancholy ideas of fallen grandeur.
Richard Chancellor,
who passed through it in 1554, in his way to Moscow, says, that, though in majesty, it is inferior to Moscow, in greatness it exceeds it. The commodiousness of the river makes it much frequented by merchants, and more famous than Moscow itself. In its most flourishing condition, it contained at least 400,000 souls; at present, it contains scarcely 7000.
In 1570, under the reign of Ivan II. Novogorod experienced a downfall, from which it has never recovered; that monarch having discovered a secret correspondence between some of the principal inhabitants, and the king of Poland, relative to a surrender of the city into his hands, inflicted the most inhuman vengeance upon them. During the space of five weeks, which the Court of Inquiry continued, upwards of 500, daily, fell victims to incensed despotism. This barbarous transaction, and the savage ferocity with which it was executed, equals, if not surpasses, in cruelty, the massacre at Stockholm, under Christian II.
Although the splendor of this once flourishing court, received a very considerable diminution by this horrid catastrophe, and the subsequent oppressions which the town experienced under that sanguinary prince, yet it was not totally obscured, until the foundation of Petersburgh, to which favourite capital
Peter the Great
transferred all the commerce of the Baltic, which before centered in Novogorod. In 1611, the Swedes took it by storm, but afterwards surrendered it to the Muscovites. The town stretches on both sides of the Wolkof, a river of considerable depth and rapidity, and somewhat broader than the Thames at Windsor. This river separates the town into two divisions; which are united, by means of a bridge, partly wooden, and partly brick. The first division, excepting the governor's house, differs only from the common villages, by a vast number of brick churches and convents, which stand melancholy monuments of its former magnificence; while half-cultivated fields, enclosed within high pallisadoes, and large spaces, covered with nettles, attest its present desolate condition. Towards its extremity, is erected a manufactory, at the Empress's expence, for ropes and sails. The opposite division, denominated, the quarter of St. Sophia, comprehends the fortress; which is of an irregularly oval form, and surrounded with a high, brick wall, strengthened with round and square towers. The fortress contains, the cathedral of St. Sophia, the old, archiepiscopal mansion, with its stair-case on the outside, part of a new palace, not yet finished; and a few other brick buildings; but, the remaining space, is a waste, overspread with weeds and nettles, and covered with ruins.
The cathedral is, probably, one of the most antient churches in Russia. It was begun in 1044 and completed in 1051. It is a high, square building, with a gilded cupola, and four tin domes. In the inside of this cathedral, to which we enter through a pair of brazen gates, ornamented with various scriptural histories, in alto-relievo, are 12 massy pillars, white-washed, which, as well as the walls, are thickly covered with the representations of our Saviour, the Virgin Mary, and various other saints. Some of these paintings are of very high antiquity. Several princes of the ducal family of Russia, are interred within this cathedral; the most ancient of whose sepulchres are of carved wood, gilt and silvered, and surrounded with iron rails; the others are, of brick and mortar. Within the sanctuary, the walls are covered with curious, Mosaic compartments, of coarse workmanship, and seemingly very ancient.
The country about Novogorod, abounds in grain, flax, hemp, honey and wax; and, it is here, they manufacture the best Russia leather. The price of provisions, in this place, is as follows:
Butcher's meat, per lb. 14½ oz. English
1
d
½ to 2
d.
Black bread, ditto
½
White ditto
1
French ditto
2
Butter, ditto
4
Ten eggs
1
d
½ to 5
d.
Couple of fowls
1
s
3
d
to 1
s
8
d.
Fat goose
1
s
Couple of wild ducks
6
d.
Tame ditto, a couple
1
s.
3
d.
Brace of partridges
10
Black game, cock and hen
1 6
Hare
7½
Quart of milk
1½
Best spirituous liquors, per quart
1 6
Inferior sort, ditto
9
Peasants shoes
1 3
Boots
4 10
Round hat
1 3
Shirt, no collar or wristbands, very short
1 3
Moscow is afflicted with very frequent and dreadful fires. The account of that in May, 1752, is immense; they mention 13,000 houses, which is hardly credible: and, what is remarkable, that fire, in two hour's time, was carried to the extent of two English miles. But, by a decree of the Russian senate, the wood-houses are now limited to certain quarters of the city; and, in all other places, they were ordered to be rebuilt with brick and stone. There is a very considerable manufacture at Moscow, of various hemp-fabricks, which employs some thousands of looms, and many thousands of people. This city is almost in the centre of the most cultivated parts of the empire; and is, therefore, independent of various other advantages it possesses, better situated for the metropolis of the empire, than Petersburgh. Founding that city, and making it the seat of foreign commerce and naval power, was an admirable exertion of genius; but, the seat of government, should always have been at Moscow.—For any further particulars, I must refer my readers to the beginning of the second volume.
Kiovia, or Kiof, the capital of the Ukraine, is also one of the most considerable cities of Russia; a place well-known in the history of that empire; which, though, compared to its former grandeur, it has been reduced to a low state, by many revolutions, yet it has now recovered all those ancient blows, and is well built, of brick and stone. The streets are wide, strait, and well-paved. It has a bishop, a noble cathedral (much of it lately rebuilt), and 11 other churches. It has 40,000 inhabitants, and is strongly fortified. The Nieper is here a noble river, has several larger rivers falling into it, after washing some of the richest provinces of Poland; and enables this town to carry on a very considerable commerce. It is the grand magazine of all the commodities of the Ukraine; particularly hemp and flax, which, in this fine province, are raised in greater quantities, and of a better quality, than in any other part of Europe. The Ukraine is the richest province in the Russian empire; and lies between the Nieper and the Don. It is, on an average, 250 miles long, from east to west; and 140 broad, from north to south. Part uf it was formerly a province of Poland; and, the rest, an independent sovereignty, under a Tartar prince: but the whole, now, is a mere province of Russia, inhabited by Circassian traders; and is much the richest acquisition the Crown has made.
The inhabitants of the Ukraine are not vassals, but chiefly little freehold-farmers, and are the best husbandmen in all Russia. Mr.
Marshall
says, he thinks he never saw such deep ploughing, as these peasants give their grounds; he measured nine inches perpendicular, after a plough drawn by four oxen. Their ploughs are very well constructed, and are made wholly of iron, without wheels. They have very noble crops of cabbages, of a red sort, that grow to the weight of 25 or 30lb. with which they feed their cattle. An acre of them will winter four or five large oxen. They have also whole fields of potatoes, which yield from 12 to 1500 bushels per acre; numbers of them, as large as the body of a quart bottle: they plant them, as we do, in slices. They grow also tobacco. In short, it is this district which raises nine-tenths of the hemp and flax which we import, at such a vast expence, from Russia. The soil is a very rich, deep mould, between a loam and a dry clay; but without any of that tenacious thickness, so disagreeable in stirring in our clay-lands in England.
Riga is another, and the next considerable place of trade to Petersburgh. It is the metropolis of Livonia, and stands very advantageously for commerce, about 10 miles from the mouth of the river Duna, in the Baltic sea; which river extending a great way into Poland and Russia, brings down immense quantities of commodities, which are there exported. More than 800 sail of ships are loaded here, in a year, from 150 to 400 tons burthen, half of them English. This province was taken from the Swedes, in 1710; and, of all the Russian conquests, it is one of the greatest, on account of its products, ports, and situation. It is nearly a square of 200 miles every way, and contains better than 25 millions of acres, and near 12 millions of people. Half the lands are under profitable cultivation; and its annual product is estimated at 13 millions steriing.
Riga itself is invested with deep, barren sands, and has nothing agreeable about it. It is surrounded with fortifications; the houses are all high, the streets very narrow, ill paved, and very dirty; and contains about 16,000 inhabitants. But the bridge over the river is one of the most singular and surprising in Europe. It is 900 paces long, and far exceeds the bridge at Rouen. It consists of transverse beams of timber, jointed together, and rises and falls with the tide. It is erected in spring always, when the river is free from ice; and removed in November, before the frost sets in.
Russian Finland is a province of Russia which formerly belonged to the Swedes, and which they are now contending for. This province retains most of its ancient privileges; its own civil and criminal courts of justice: but their punishments do not extend to death. The peasants speak the Fin language; but the inhabitants of the towns, Swedish and German: the Lutheran religion is the established one; but, the Greek church, has been lately introduced. It is so un-peopled, un-cultivated, and un-fertile, that 40 English miles of land have been lately sold for 400
l.
sterling.
Wiburgh is the capital of this province, is a fortified town, and contains about 9,000 people; but the exports of the place, in planks, tallow, pitch and tar, load annually 100 sail of ships, the greater part of which are English.
Archangel is another port of the Russians, on the North Sea. It is a small town, almost on the mouth of the Duiria, about 300 miles from Petersburgh, where the river, which is very broad and deep, forms an excellent harbour. It was formerly the residence of the British factors, till they removed to Petersburgh. In those days, it was not uncommon to see 4 or 500 sail of ships in the harbour, at one time; but the trade being transferred to Petersburgh, it is now a poor place, of very little resort; and the buildings contain nothing worthy of notice. They have a cathedral, and an archbishop of the Greek church; but every thing looks on the decline.
Of Russ Poland, that part of Poland which Russia has now taken to herself, Rzeezyka is the capital. It is large, populous, and strongly fortified; but as much Russian as is Moscow; a Russian garrison, Russian government, scarcely any thing Polish in it. All the houses, deserted by the Poles, being filled with Russian families. Indeed, near half the kingdom of Poland is in the hands of the Russians, who receive pretty heavy taxes from it, and recruit their army, against the Turks, from it. The Polish nobles, who declare against Russia, are driven from their estates; and great numbers of the peasantry, are removed, immediately into Russia, and their places filled by Russians. The Empress, by this acquisition, gets an increase of subjects, to the number of 1,500,000.
CHAP. III.
Of their Amusements, Customs, Manners,
&c.
AMONG their various amusements, that of their masquerades, and illuminations, in the gardens at Peterhof, deserve to be particularly noticed. They are given, by the Empress, upon a great occasion; and convey a most extensive proof of the splendor and magnificence of the Russian court.
The masquerade is rather a
bal paré en domino;
as there are very few or no fancy-dresses, nor is any character supported. Every person, without distinction is admitted, on these occasions; and there are, sometimes, not less than 4 or 5000 persons present; amongst whom is her Majesty, who sometimes plays cards most of the night.
The illuminations in the garden, are far beyond any seen elsewhere; for in this, as well as in fire-works, the Russians excel every nation in Europe. On these occasions, two prodigious arcades of fire are extended in front of the palace; the canal, which reaches to the gulph of Finland, has been illuminated on both sides, the view terminating by a rock, lighted in the inside, and affording a most beautiful effect; from either side of the canal, long, arched walks, illuminated; and, beyond these, in the woods, hanging festoons of lamps, differently coloured. All the
jets d' eaux
playing; artificial cascades, with the water tumbling from one declivity to another, and, under each, lights, so artfully disposed, as, at once, to amuse and surprise the spectator: besides these, summer-houses, pyramids, and temples of flame; and, beyond all, the Imperial yatchts, appearing in the same brilliant and dazzling ornaments.
Two or three times, in the winter, there are masquerades at the court at Petersburgh, to which persons of all ranks are admitted. A magnificent suite of 20 apartments is opened upon these occasions, all handsomely illuminated. From 7 to 8000 tickets are distributed; and Mr.
Coxe
says, that at one, at which he was, he should suppose that number were actually present. One of the apartments, a large, oblong room, the same in which the common balls at court are held, has a space in the middle, enclosed with a low railing, appropriated to the nobility who dance. A most elegant saloon, of an oval form, nearly as big as the rotunda at Ranelagh, but without any support in the middle, is allotted for the dances of the burghers, and other persons, who have not been presented at court. The remaining rooms, in which tea, and other refreshments, are served, are filled with card-tables. About seven the Empress usually makes her appearance, at the head of a superb quadrille, consisting of eight ladies, led by as many gentlemen. Her Majesty, and her attendants, are always, upon these occasions, most sumptuously apparelled; and, as usual, with a profuse decoration of diamonds. The Empress, after walking round the saloon two or three times, sits down to cards in an adjoining room, where the company flock in crouds, without distinction, and arrange themselves, as they can find admittance, round the table, at a respectful distance. About eleven the Empress usually withdraws.
In the summer season, when the court is out of town, there are scarce any public spectacles at Petersburgh, except at the Imperial palace, where a French and Russian comedy are performed generally once a week. The seats are adjusted by rank, and no money is paid for admittance, as it is the Empress's own amusement, and limited to people of condition. Boxing-matches are very favorite diversions among the common people; they generally assemble, 3 or 400, and divide themselves into two parties, each of which chuses a chief, who calls out the combatants, and pits them against each other. They do not strip, as with us, and have on thick, leathern gloves; from the stiffness of the leather, they can scarcely double their fists, so that many of them strike open-handed. Their attitudes are very different from those used by boxers in England; they advance the left foot and side; stretch the left arm towards the adversary, in order to repel his blows, and keep the right arm swinging at some distance from the other. They generally strike, in a circular direction, at the face and head, never attack the breast or sides, and seem to have no notion of aiming a blow directly forward. When any combatant fells his antagonist to the ground, he is declared victor, and the contest between that pair immediately ceases. Their mode of fighting prevents any mischief from its exertion; nor do we, therefore, seldom see any of those fractures and contusions, in which boxing-matches in England so frequently terminate.
The tournament is a favourite diversion in Russia. I shall describe one from Mr.
Coxe
's Travels, at which he was present.
"His Imperial Highness the Great Duke, who two or three times in a week takes this diversion, and eleven of his nobles, dressed in uniforms of buff and gold, and armed with a lance, sword and pistols, were assembled at nine o'clock, although it was as yet dusk. The Great Duke drew them up by pairs; and, upon the sound of the trumpet, he and the knights immediately mounted their horses, and retired in due order without the rails. Two rings were suspended on opposite sides of the wall, on each side of the manage. At each corner was a Moor's head, of pasteboard; or an apple, fixed upon a pole; and, between them, two heads, with a squib in their mouths: these were all placed upon stands, almost as high as a man on horseback, and at some paces from the wall: at each end was also a helmet of pasteboard, raised upon a stand, about a foot from the ground, and about four from the wall. The two judges, with Lord Herbert and myself, who were the only spectators, took our station on the outside of the rail. Upon a second signal from the trumpet, two knights entered at opposite ends of the manage. A band of music played a quick air, while each knight, galloping his horse to the right, and making a vault, saluted with their lances at the same time; then, continuing their course round the manage, each ran with his lance, first at the rings suspended from the walls, and next at the Moor's head; after which they delivered their lances, as they went on, to their servants on foot. The knights then drew their pistols, and, each making a second vault round the other's head, discharged them, in order to set fire to the squib; then pursuing their course round the manage, they drew their swords, and, making a third vault round the apple, endeavoured to strike it to the ground. They finished their career by stooping down as they galloped by, thrusting their swords through the helmets; then poising them in the air, they met in the middle, and, riding towards the judge, saluted him; related the attempts in which they had succeeded, and demanded their prizes. The prize was about four shillings for each atchievement; and an equal value was paid for every failure. The whole was performed on a continued gallop, and always to the right. In running at the ring, the head, or the helmet, it is esteemed honorable to put the horse into full career, which increases the difficulty. The judge, having bestowed the rewards, and taken the forfeits, ordered the two knights to retire. The trumpets again sounding, two others made their appearance, and performed the same manoeuvres. This exercise was repeated twice by each pair of knights; the whole troop then entered at the same time, marched, charged, formed, drew, returned their swords, and dismounted, by word of command from the Great Duke. At the conclusion they adjourned to the fire, chocolate was brought in, and, after a short conversation, the Great Duke bowed, and retired."
Hawking, and coursing with greyhounds, is also very much a favourite amusement of the Russians. Before the days of
Peter the Great,
they were barbarous, ignorant, and very much addicted to drunkenness. No fewer than 4,000 brandy-shops have been reckoned in Moscow. Not only the common people, but many of the boyars, or nobles, lived in a continual state of idleness and intoxication; and the most complete objects of misery and barbarity presented themselves in the streets; while the court of Moscow was by far the most splendid of any upon the globe. The Russians, before the time of
Peter,,
had no places of public diversion; and they entertained a sovereign contempt for all improvements of the mind. At present, a French or English gentleman, though a fine day does not tempt him to take a walk, and he has few rural scenes to enchant his eyes, may make a shift to live as comfortably and sociably in Russia, as in most other parts of Europe; and, if he lives genteely at Petersburgh, he is sure to get easily into the best of company.
The stoves they make use of diffuse a more equal and genial warmth than our grates and chimnies. Their polite assemblies have, since the accession of the present Empress, been put under proper regulations; and few of their ancient usages remain, but such as are of public utility, and adapted to the nature of the country.
The Czarina and grandees, according to Captain
Perry
's account, dressed after the most superb, Asiatic manner; and their magnificence exceeded every idea that can be conceived, from modern examples: and the
Earl of Carlisle,
in the account of his embassy, says, That he could see nothing but gold and precious stones in the robes of the Czar, and his courtiers. The manufactures, however, of these, and all other luxuries, were carried on by Italians, Germans, and other foreigners.
Peter,
who saw the bulk of his subjects, at his accession to the throne, little better than beasts of burthen, to support the pomp of the court, forced his great men to lay aside their long robes, which hung down to the middle of the small of their legs, and was gathered, and laid in plaits upon their hips, little differing from women's petticoats; and appear after the English fashion. To compell this, he adopted different methods; one of which, from its oddity, I shall mention. He had cloaths, made according to the English fashion, hung up at all the gates of the city of Moscow, and issued a proclamation, that all persons (excepting the common peasants, who brought goods and provisions into the city), should have their cloaths according to those patterns: and, in disobedience to it, should either pay a fine of twenty pence English, or be compelled to kneel down at the gates of the city, and have their coats cut off even with the ground, when they knelt; in consequence of which, many hundreds coats were cut; and, as it was done in good humour, it occasioned mirth among the people, and soon broke the custom of their wearing long coats. The women, but more particularly the ladies about court, were also ordered to reform the fashion of their cloaths; and a reformation of
Peter
's, in another point, the sooner reconciled them to this.
It had been an invariable custom in Russia, at all entertainments, for the women not to be admitted into the sight or conversation of men; and, the very houses of persons of any quality, or fashion, were built with an entrance for the women apart; and they used to be kept up separate by themselves. But the Czar, being not only willing to introduce English habits, but to make them more particularly pleasing to the Russ ladies, made an order that, from thence-forward, at all weddings, and at other public entertainments, the women, as well as the men, should be invited, but in an English-fashioned dress; and that they should then be entertained in the same room with the men.
From these circumstances did the reform in their manners of dress take place; which has improved, with time; so that people of distinction now dress, as nearly as the climate will admit, after the English and French manner. The common people, who are, in general, a coarse, hardy race, of great bodily strength, are cloathed still with long coats, reaching below the knee, made of dressed sheep-skins, with the wool inwards, trowsers of linen, almost as thick as sackcloth, a woollen cloth wrapped round the legs to a great thickness, instead of stockings, sandals, woven from slips of pliant bark, and fastened by strings of the same materials, which are afterwards twined round the leg, and serve as garters, over their legs, so swathed, they will often draw boots. In summer, the men will often wear coats and shirts only, and trowsers, but always swathe their legs. Their hair they suffer to hang down over the forehead, and cut it short in the poll. Their caps, or hats, are round, with very high crowns, lined with fur, and cover their ears and neck, as well as their heads. They wear sashes round their waist; and double gloves, one of woollen, and the other of leather, which take in the hand without any distinction, except the thumb; and these are also an essential part of their cloathing. The women, besides their petticoats, wear sheep-skins, as well as the men.
It had been the manner of the Russians to wear long beards; but
Peter,
desirous of making them like other Europeans, levied a tax upon his subjects, excepting only the priests, for the wearing of their beards; but, notwithstanding these rigorous edicts, issued by
Peter,
the men, among the lower class, universally wear the beard.
RUSSIANS
The women, in general, bind their heads with pieces of silk, or linen, so as to resemble the Eastern turband; but, in other respects, in summer-time, dress like Europeans; excepting that they display more luxury. Their dresses, particularly at court, as I before observed, are more splendid, and more expensive, than are seen any where else; all gold, silver, and jewels: but, says Mr.
Marshall,
scarcely any taste. They have, in their dresses, but one ambition; which is, to be as rich as possible; and to have a great change: but, as to having an idea of taste and real elegance, even the nobility (continues he) seem not to know what it is.
[
The plate represents, a peasant bowing to a Russian nobleman, after the manner of their country.
]
Mr.
Wraxall
says, He was a spectator of one of their customs, which not a little surprised him; that of a promiscuous bathing of more than 200 persons of both sexes. There are several of these public bathing-places in Petersburgh; where every one pays a few copecs, or halfpence, for admittance; and bathe, once or twice a-week. There are, indeed, separate places for the men and women; but they seem quite regardless of this distinction, and sit, or bathe, promiscuously, quite naked. They go first into a room, heated to such a degree, that it is scarce possible to breathe in it; and, after staying in this room, till they are in a strong perspiration, either plunge into the cold water of the river Neva, or throw a quantity of cold water over them, from little buckets, kept for the purpose.— This may harden a Russian constitution, but would ill agree with an English one.
Mr.
Coxe
is more particular in describing these baths, which are general all over Russia. The common bathing-houses are wooden buildings, of one room, close to some river, with small windows, like cottage-windows. This room, within, is provided with ranges of broad benches, placed, like steps, one above another, almost to the cieling. An old woman is generally the attendant of this room. On these benches, you will see numbers of persons naked; some lying on the benches, some sitting, others standing; some washing their bodies with soap, others rubbing themselves with small branches of oak-leaves, tied together like a rod; some pouring hot water on their heads, others cold water; whilst the woman, having made a fire under an arch of granite-stone, about four feet high, sprinkles water over this arch, when it is sufficiently heated, and the vapour arising therefrom, heats the room almost beyond bearing. Some, exhausted thus by the heat, go out and
nd in the open air, or throw themselves into the river, to cool them. When a person goes singly to one of these baths, this old woman, having heated the room, strips the bather, lays him on the bench, and lathers him with soap, from head to foot, then washes him, and dries him with napkins. This operation, renders the body insensible to cold, even in the coldest weather; and communicates a glow of warmth, that continues the whole night.
In the month of December I was witness, says Mr.
Coxe,
to a very singular entertainment, given to the public, by a Russian, who had acquired a large fortune by farming, four years only, and vending spirituous liquors. On surrendering his contract, he gave, as a proof of his gratitude to the lower class of people, by whom he had enriched himself, a feast, in the garden of the summer-palace, which was announced by hand-bills, distributed through the city. A large, semi-circular table, was covered with all kinds of provisions, piled in different shapes, and in the greatest profusion. Large slices of bread and caviare, dried sturgeon, carp, and other fish, were ranged to a great height, in the form of pent-houses and pyramids, and garnished with craw-fish, onions and pickles. In different parts of the garden, were rows of casks, full of spirituous liquors; and still larger vessels, of wines, beer, and quas. Among the decorations, was the representation of an immense whale in pasteboard, covered with cloth, and gold and silver brocade, and filled within with bread, dried fish, and other provisions.
All sorts of games and diversions were exhibited for the amusement of the populace. At the extremity of the grounds, was a large square of ice, well swept, for the scaters; near which, were two machines, like the swinging vehicles at Bartholomew-fair. One of these machines consisted of two cross beams, fixed horizontally to a pole, in the center, by means of a pivot; from the ends, hung four sledges, in which the people seated themselves, and were turned round with great velocity; the other had four wooden horses, suspended from the beams, and their riders were whirled round, in the like manner, as their rivals in the sledges. Beyond these, were two ice-hills, such as I have described below, and for the same diversion. Two poles, above 20 feet high, were also erected, with colours flying; and, at the top of each, was placed a piece of money, as a prize for those who could swarm up and seize it. The poles being rubbed with oil, soon froze, in this severe climate; and, of course, many and tedious were the attempts of the various competitors, in this slipping ascent to fame. The scene was lively and gay; for above 40,000 persons, of both sexes, were assembled on the occasion.
It had been pre-concerted, that, on the firing of a rocket, the people were to drink a glass of spirituous liquor; and, upon the discharge of a second, to begin the repast. But the impatience of the populace anticipated the necessity of the second signal; and the whole multitude was soon, and at once, in motion. The whale was the chief object of contention; within a few minutes, it was entirely divested of its gaudy trappings, which became the spoils of its successful invaders. They had no sooner flea'd it of its drapery, and secured the fragments of rich brocades, than they rent him into a thousand pieces, in order to seize the provisions with which its inside were stored. The remaining people, who were too numerous to be all engaged about the whale, were busy in uncovering the pent-houses, and pulling down the pyramids, in conveying provender with one hand to their mouths, and the other to their pockets. Others crowded round the casks and hogsheads, and, with great wooden ladles, lapped incessantly wine, beer, and spirits. The confusion and riot which soon succeeded, is better conceived than described. The evening was closed with a superb illumination of the gardens, and a magnificent fire-work.
But, the consequences of this feast, were dreadful. The cold had suddenly increased with such violence, that
Fahrenheit
's thermometer, which, at mid-day, stood only at 4, sunk, towards the close of the evening, to 15 below the freezing point; consequently, many intoxicated persons were frozen to death; not a few fell a sacrifice to drunken quarrels; and others, were robbed and murdered, in the more retired parts of the city, as they were returning home late. From a comparison of the various reports, at least 400 persons lost their lives, on this melancholy occasion. Murders used to be frequent in Petersburgh; but the police is now so well regulated, that we seldom hear of one. Among other parts of the police, no apothecary dares sell a medicine, unless a regular prescription is brought him, signed by a physician—a law very beneficial to the faculty, and not without its use. Another regulation here, not without its advantages, though troublesome, is, that no stranger can quit the capital, to pass the frontiers, without having been first advertised in all the public papers, for 10 days preceding his departure, let his business, or his affairs, be ever so urgent. Petersburgh, however, being no thoroughfare, the inconvenience is not so great as one would suppose.
Nothing can be more lively and diversified than the winter-scenes upon the Neva. Many carriages and sledges, and numberless foot — passengers, perpetually crossing it, afford a constant succession of moving objects; and the ice is also covered with different groupes of people, dispersed, or gathered together, and variously employed, as fancy leads them. In one part, we see several long areas, railed off, for the purpose of scating; a little further, an enclosure, wherein a nobleman is training his horses, and teaching them the various evolutions of the managed. In another part, the crowd are spectators of what is called a sledge-race. The course is an oblong space, about the length of a mile, and sufficiently broad to turn a carriage. It can hardly be called a race, for there is only a single sledge, drawn by two horses; and, the whole art of the driver, consists in making the shaft-horse trot as fast as he can, whilst the other is pushed into a gallop.
ICE HILLS.
The ice-hills I have mentioned, are exceedingly common, and afford a perpetual fund of amusement to the populace. They are in imitation of the Flying-Mountain, at the palace of Peterhof; and are constructed in the following manner:—A scaffolding is raised upon the river, about 30 feet high, with a landing-place on the top, the ascent to which is by a ladder. From this top, a sloping plain of boards, about four yards broad, and 30 yards long, descends to the surface to the river, supported by strong uprights, or poles, gradually decreasing in height; and its sides defended by a parapet of planks. On these boards are laid square pieces of ice, about four inches thick, which, being first smoothed with an axe, and laid close to each other, are then sprinkled with water. By these means they unite, and adhering to the boards, immediately form an inclined plain of pure ice. From the bottom of this plain, the snow is cleared away, for the length of 200 yards, and the breadth of four yards. The level end of the river, and the sides of this course, as well as the sides and top of the scaffolding, are ornamented with firs and pines. Each person being provided with a sledge, resembling our butcher's tray, mounts the ladder, and, when on the top of the scaffold, seats himself in this sledge, or tray, at the upper end of the inclined plane, down which he slides with considerable rapidity, poising it as he goes down; when the velocity acquired by the descent, carries it on above 100 yards, on the level ice below. At the end of this course, there is a similar ice-hill, nearly parallel to to the former, which begins where the other ends; so that the person immediately mounts again, and glides down as on the first, and so on; and this diversion he continues, as long as he pleases. The difficulty of this pastime consists in steering and balancing the sledge, as it is hurried down the inclined plane; for, if the person in it, does not sit steady, but totters, through inadvertency, or fear, he is liable to be overthrown, and runs no small risque of breaking his limbs, if not his neck▪ The boys, also, will scate down this hill, on one scate; and are better able to poise themselves on one leg, than on two. These ice-hills exhibit a pleasing appearance on the river, as well from the trees with which they are ornamented, as from the moving objects, which, at particular times of the day, are sliding down, without intermission.
The game of chess is so common throughout Russia, that tradesmen, and common people, at Moscow, are seen playing in the street, at their shop-doors.
The market, on the Neva, has been described before.
The cottages of the peasants are constructed in a square shape; are formed of whole trees, piled upon each other, and secured at the corners, where the ends meet, with mortasses and tenons, and the spaces between the trees are stuffed with moss. Within, the timbers are smoothed with the axe, so as to resemble wainscot; but are left without in their rude state, with the bark on. The roofs are in the penthouse stile, composed of the bark of trees, or shingles, and covered with turf. They usually raise the whole house, without the assistance of a saw; the axe, or hatchet, being their chief instrument. They finish the shell and roof of the house, before they cut out the windows, which are merely openings, a few inches square, closed with sliding shutters; and the door is generally so low, as not to admit a middle-sized man, without stooping. Sometimes, though rarely, these cottages consist of two stories; in which case, they make the lower apartment a kind of store-room, and live in the upper, mounting to it by a ladder. In the villages, the scite of the houses is generally an oblong square, surrounding an area, enclosed with a high, wooden wall, with a penthouse roof; the whole resembling a large barn. In one angle of this enclosure, stands the house, fronting the street, with the stair-case (where there are two stories) on the outside, the door opening underneath the penthouse roof.
The furniture consists chiefly, of a wooden table, or dresser, and benches fastened to the sides of the room; on which last the family sleeps, in their cloaths, promiscuously, almost in a state of nature, and frequently with their heads hanging off the bench. The utensils are, platters, bowls, spoons, &c. all wood, with, perhaps, one large, earthen pan, in which they cook their victuals, over a stove erected in the middle. Some houses have openings in the roof, to let out the smoke, some none.
In the midst of every room hangs, from the cieling, a vessel of holy water, and a lamp, which is lighted, on particular occasions. Every house has a picture of some saint, coarsely daubed on wood, resembli
more a Kalmuck idol, than a human head: to this the highest marks of veneration are paid. All the members of the family, the instant they rise, and before they go to rest, standing before it, and crossing themselves, on the sides and forehead, for several minutes, bowing very low, and often prostrating themselves on the ground before it. Every person, also on entering the room, pays his obeisance first to this object of worship.
Perry
says, that, in bowing to this picture, they cross themselves, and cry
—Hospi
mi
io;
that is,
Lord, have mercy upon me;
—and, if it happens in a poor man's house, who has but one picture, and the room is either dark, or the painting so effaced, or covered with smoke, so as not to be immediately visible to strangers, a person entering, will presently ask—
Ogdea Boag?
"Where is God?" — which being shewn to him, he will immediately reverence it, as before.
Their food is black rye-bread, sometimes white; eggs, salt-fish, bacon, mushrooms, and a kind of hodge-podge, made of salt, or fresh meat, groats, and rye-flour, highly seasoned with garlick and onions. Their bread they also stuff with onions and groats, carrots, or green corn; in order to render it more palatable, and season it with sweet oil. Mushrooms are so exceedingly common in this country, as to form a very essential part of their provisions. I seldom entered a cottage, says Mr.
Coxe,
but I saw a great quantity of them; nor did I ever pass a market, but I was astonished at their vast abundance, and of all colours, white, black, brown, yellow, green and pink. The common drink of the peasants, is
Quas,
a fermented liquor, something like sweet-wort, made, by pouring warm water on rye, or barley-meal, and is deemed an excellent antiscorbutic. They are extremely fond of whisky, a spirituous liquor, distilled from malt, which the poorest can occasionally command, and which they often use to excess.
The backwardness of the Russian peasants, in all the mechanical arts, when compared with those of other nations, is visible to every one. Near Petersburgh, they are somewhat better furnished with the conveniences of life, and their cottages are rather better constructed; but still, their progress towards civilization, is very inconsiderable. I will mention one instance, says
Coxe,
because it will shew, into what a wretched state of ignorance, the common class of people are still plunged. In many families, the father marries the son, whilst a boy of seven, eight or nine years old, to a girl of a more advanced age; in order, as it is said, to procure able-bodied women for domestic services. He cohabits with this person, now become his daughter-in-law, and frequently has several children by her; so that, in some cottages, there are two mistresses of a family; one, the peasant's real wife, who is old enough to be his mother; and the other, nominally, the son's wife; but, in reality, the father's concubine.
Certain peasants, called
Yamshics,
are obliged to furnish horses, at a fixed rate, for travelling, and are allowed particular privileges for so doing; namely, exemptions from the poll-tax, or serving as soldiers: but, notwithstanding these immunities, the price for each horse, being but from one halfpenny English to three half-pence, for each verst, or three-quarters of a mile, they produce their horses with great reluctance. The instant a traveller demands a fresh supply of horses, the Yamshics assemble, in crowds, and frequently wrangle and quarrel to such a degree, as to afford great amusement to one not impatient to set off. An hour is often spent in such disputes; and the post-master is frequently obliged to settle them, by obliging the Yamshics to draw lots, who shall furnish the horses. The only mode of travelling with comfort, is, by having a Russ soldier with you, which can be procured with the pass-port. This soldier, immediately on his arrival at the post-house, instead of attending to the arguments of the Yamshics, or waiting for the mediation of the post-master, summarily decides the business, by the
argumentum baculinum,
or, the powerful interposition of the cudgel.
The peasants act in capacity of coachmen and postilions. They always harness four horses a-breast; and, commonly, put eight, and sometimes ten to a carriage; the stages being generally from 20 to 30 miles long, and the roads extremely bad. They seldom use either boots, or saddles; and have no kind of stirrup, but a rope, doubled, and thrown across the horse's back. Each horse is equipped with a s
affle-bridle, seldom put into the mouth, but hanging loose under it. Their general method of driving, is by starts and bounds, not an even pace, seldom trotting their horses, but often galloping them, even in the worst roads; and as often checking their speed on the most level ground. A common piece of rope serves them for a whip, as they urge their horses on, hooting and whistling, like cat-calls. The intervals of these noises are filled with singing, to which the natives have a great propensity. No sooner are the postilions mounted, but they will begin to warble an air, and often continue it, without intermission, for hours: nay, they will, occasionally, sing in parts, and in a kind of musical dialogue, chanting, as it were, their common conversation. Thus, the postilions
sing
from the beginning to the end of a stage; the soldiers
sing,
during their march; the countrymen
sing,
during the most laborious occupations; the public-houses re-echo with their carrols; and, in a still evening, the air will vibrate with the notes of surrounding villages.
St
hlin,
who resided a long time in Russia, and who has turned his attention to the study of the national music, gives us the following information, on this curious subject.—The general music that prevails among the common people in Russia, from the Duna to the Amur, and the Frozen Ocean, consists in one species of simple melody, which admits of infinite variation, according to the ability of the singer, or the custom of the several provinces in this extensive empire. The words of the songs are mostly in prose, and often
extempore,
according to the immediate invention, or recollection of the singer; perhaps an ancient legend, the history of an enormous giant, a declaration of love, a dialogue between a lover and his mistress, a murder, or a beautiful girl; sometimes, they are merely letters and syllables, taken from some old accidence, metrically arranged, but seldom in rhyme, and adapted to this general air: these latter words are chiefly used by mothers, in singing to their children; while boors, at the same time, perform their national dance to the same tune, accompanied with instrumental music. The subject of the song shall also, frequently, allude to the former adventures of the singer, or his present situation; and, the peasants will adapt the topics of their common discourse, and their disputes with each other, to this general air, which, altogether, forms an extraordinary effect, and leads one to suppose that they chaunt their ordinary conversation.
In their common intercourse, the peasants are, as I have observed, very polite to each other. In higher life, the gentlemen bow very low, and the ladies incline their heads, instead of curtesying. Sometimes, the gentlemen kiss the ladies hands, as a mark of respect; and, if the parties are well-acquainted, or of equal condition, or if the lady is disposed to pay a compliment, she will salute the gentleman's cheek, whilst he is kissing her hand; and, frequently, whilst she stoops to touch his cheek, he takes that opportunity of saluting her. If the gentleman is a person of very high rank, the lady offers first to kiss his hand, which he prevents, by saluting her cheek. Men, particularly relations, exchange salutes in this manner, each kissing the other's hand at the same instant, and afterwards their cheeks.
In their usual mode of address, the Russians never prefix any title, or appellation of respect, to their names; but persons of all ranks, even those of the first distinction, call each other by their christian names; to which they add a patronymick. These patronymicks are formed, in some cases, by adding
Vitch
(similar to our
Fitz)
to the christian name of the father; in others, by
of,
or
Ef.
The former is applied only to persons of condition; the latter, to those of inferior rank. Thus:
Ivan Ivanovitch
Ivan Ivanof
is, Ivan, the son of Ivan; and so on.
The female patronymick, is
Efna,
or
Ofna:
as, Sophia-Alexe-Efna, or, Sophia, the daughter of Alexey; Maria Ivanofna, or, Maria, the daughter of Ivan.
Great families are distinguished, in general, by a surname; as those of Romanof, Galitzin, Sheremetof, &c.
The houses of the nobility are furnished with great elegance; and, their suites of apartments, where they receive company, are uncommonly splendid.
Their grounds are prettily laid out, in the stile of our parks, with gentle slopes, spacious lawns, scattered plantations, and water, fringed with wood; most of the Russian nobles having English gardeners, and resigning themselves implicitly to their direction.
The English merchants live in a very social, and even splendid manner. Besides constant meetings at their respective houses, they have, once a fortnight, a regular assembly, in a house hired for the purpose, to which they obligingly invite all their countrymen, who happen to be at Petersburgh, and, occasionally, some Russian ladies. Here is a ball, cards, and supper.
The great road from Moscow to Petersburgh is continued, during a space of 500 miles, almost in a straight line, cut through a forest, and is extremely tedious; on each side, the trees are cleared away, to the breadth of 40 or 50 paces; and, the whole way lies chiefly through endless tracts of wood, only broken by villages, round which, to a small distance, the grounds are open and cultivated. This road is of a uniform breadth, and formed in the following manner. Trunks of trees are laid handsomely in rows, parallel to each other, and are bound down in the centre, and at each end, by long poles, or beams, fastened into the ground with wooden pegs; these trunks are sometimes covered with boards, like a flooring, and sometimes with layers of boughs, strewed over with sand, or earth.
Hanway
has made a calculation, and says, that 100 miles of such road, takes up 2,100,000 trees. Whilst the road is new, it is remarkably good; but as the trunks decay, or sink, or as the sand, or ground, is washed off, as is the case often for miles together, it is full of holes and ridges, and, of course, very rough to travel on. The villages, which occasionally line this route, are all like each other, a single street, with wooden cottages, and here and there a brick house.
The common carriages of this country, are called
Kibitkis.
A kibitki is a small cart, capable of containing two persons a-breast, whilst the driver sits on the further extremity, close to the horses tails. It is formed like a child's cradle, about five feet long, and the hinder part covered with a tilt, made of laths, and interwoven with birch-bark, but open in front: there is not a piece of iron in the whole machine. It has no springs, and is fastened together by wooden pins, ropes and sticks to the four wheels, the boxes of which are of an extra-ordinary length, and project above a foot beyond the orbit of the wheels. The Russians, when they travel in these carriages, place a feather-bed in the bottom, and, with this precaution, the roughness of the roads is not felt, and a traveller, stretched on this bed, may doze away a journey in perfect tranquillity; and, that he may know how far he travels, each verst, or three-fourths of an English mile, is marked, all through the high roads of Russia, by a post, 12 feet high, and painted red.
EMPRESS OF RUSSIA TRAVELLING.
When the Empress travels, she is drawn in a large machine, like a room, which contains her bed, a table, and other conveniences, where four persons may sit to dinner. This machine, in winter, is set on a sledge, and drawn by 24 post-horses. If any of them fail on the roads, others are ready to supply their place; and there are several small palaces on the roads she travels, where she sometimes sleeps, and refreshes herself.
Peter the Great
once travelled from Moscow to Petersburgh, 488 English miles, in 46 hours; but it is easily performed, in three days and a half. The Empress, as she travels by night as well as day, is conducted on by the light of fires, blazing on eminences by the road-side. These fires are great piles of wood, placed there for the purpose; and the road, where the country is open, is marked out by fir-trees, planted on both sides, at the distance of 20 yards from each other.
It was formerly a custom, in Russia, with respect to marriage, for the match to be made up between the parents on each side, without any previous meeting, consent, or liking of one another, and often before the parties were of sufficient age to judge for themselves; but
Peter I.
taking into consideration this unacceptable way of joining young people together, without their own approbation, and to which might be owing, a great deal of that discord, and little love, shewn to each other; it being a common thing, in Russia, for husbands to beat their wives cruelly, so as often to kill them, which the law winked at; and, of course, led wives often to murder their husbands in revenge, for which they were buried up to the neck, and thus left, guarded, to starve to death. The Czar, too often a witness to these sad sights, in pity to his people, enacted a law, that no young couple should be married, without their own free consent; and, that all persons should be admitted to visit, and see each other, at least six weeks before they were married. This regulation pleased the Russians much, and has been the means of their adopting other foreign customs, which before they set their faces against.
They have many whimsical notions, respecting the state of the dead. When a corpse is drest, a priest is sent for, to pray for its soul, to purify it with incense, and sprinkle it with holy water. After keeping it eight or ten days above ground, thus purifying it daily, the priest produces a ticket, signed by the bishop, and another clergyman, as a passport to Heaven, and the body is carried to the grave, with many gesticulations of sorrow. Being interred, the mourners return, and drown their sorrow in intoxication; which, among the opulent, lasts, with few intermissions, for 40 days. During this time, the priest says prayers daily over the grave of the deceased; for, though the Russians do not believe in purgatory, they conceive, their departed friend may be assisted on his way to Heaven, by prayers.
CHAP. IV.
On their Population and Trade.
LITTLE RUSSIA, in general, is a very level and fertile country, abounding in all the necessaries of human life. The air is serene and good, with not the 20th part of the fogs, and a fifth part less rain than we have in England, The Russes have a saying, That they are very rich in fish, and in bread; and, it may be added, that they have good store of horses, of cattle, and of wild game.
We are not to look for that population in Russia, that we meet with in the eastern countries of Europe. If such was to be found, this empire, which is of a much greater extent than that of the Romans, would be as powerful also; but the common ideas, of its being all a desart, we have already seen carried too far. In Siberia there are rich meadows, 100 miles square. It is very badly peopled, taking the whole together; but many of the provinces are very populous, much of the territory in a good state of culture, and the appearance of it, in many parts, flourishing; to this may be added, the great increase of people, constantly gaining by the reception and encouragement given to foreigners to settle, who flock here in whole troops. This encouragement, which the Empress always grants, consists in several very important articles. All the expences of the journey, or voyage, from their native country, are borne by her; she feeds, and supports them, by the way. On their arrival at the territory appointed them to cultivate, which has always been part of the crown lands, every family has a cottage erected at her expence, to which they contribute labour. They are next furnished with implements necessary for cultivation, and one year's provision for the whole family; and they are exempted from all taxes, for five years. Thus, since the accession of the present Czarina, to the year 1770, upwards of six hundred thousand persons, Germans, Poles, and Greeks from Turkey, have settled in Russia. From the courts of Germany, ship-loads at a time; and, from Poland and Turkey, whole towns, and districts; and, as all the promises that have been made to them (and even more), have been inviolably kept, and fresh settlers are continually pouring in, there is no doubt but, by this time, she has upwards of 1,200,000 new subjects, which must annually encrease the trade, revenues, and power, of this country.
The product, or manufactures of Russia, which constitutes its commerce with other nations, is pot-ash, wood-ash, Russia leather, furs, linen, thread, flax, hemp, seal-skins, train-oil, rosin, pitch, tar, caviare, tallow, honey, wax, isinglass for glue and ship windows, soap, feathers, musk, rhubarb, and other drugs; also, masts, timber, plank and firs. To these articles of trade, may be added, the produce of their iron and copper mines; and the raw silk they bring from China, to which place they carry on a trade by land, in caravans, carrying out furs, and bringing back tea, silk, cottons, gold, &c.
Russia has made great strides in the improvement of her commerce, for several years past, enjoying some advantages beyond any other nation. The number and greatness of her rivers opens a communication almost to every part of the globe; but particularly within her own extended dominions. As to timber, hemp and iron, which are the instrumental causes of trade, no country in the world produces a greater quantity; which is a natural consequence of the cheapness of land and labour.
It seems to be a maxim, established in all countries where commerce has made any progress, that the value of exports must exceed that of the imports; otherwise, the balance must necessarily be paid in money. Against this, the Russians, though they have both silver and gold mines, and of course bullion should be considered as a commodity, have taken the precaution to make it next to death, to export their coin; nor can any plate, or bullion, be carried out of the country, but by express permission. In its commerce with England, the balance of trade is greatly against us.
The custom-house books of Petersburgh and Cronstadt, contain the following accounts for 1788:
Exports
20,351,937 rubles
Imports
15,474,396 ditto
forming a balance of nearly five millions in their favour.
There is an English factory at Petersburgh, which was, in the reign of
Mary I.
established at Archangel, but removed to Petersburg, soon after its foundation, and half the trade of that city is in the hands of the English; yet the Russian trade, in the Baltic, is carried on also at Riga, Revel, Narva, and Wiburgh. From Riga, a considerable quantity of corn is exported, by the English, Swedes, and Dutch.
Though the English engross so much of the Russian trade, it is but justice to observe, that there are no monopolies, or exclusive privileges, assumed by the Russia company; nor any rule of conduct established, which has the least appearance of bringing discredit to this nation; for any natural-born subject may, for 5
l.
take his freedom of the company, go into Russia, and establish a house of business, under the protection of the British Crown, and may send Russian goods into England, paying the legal duties.
The English having opened a trade with the Persians, across the Caspian sea, in which they were interrupted in 1747, the Russians pursued their track, with perseverance. The Caspian sea, I have had occasion to mention before: I will only observe, now, that it is about 680 miles long, and 260 miles broad, has no tide, but one small island in it, uninhabited; that its water is salt, and that, on account of its numberless shallows, it is navigable only by vessels drawing from seven to ten feet water. The Russian ports, on this sea, are, Gurjef, at the mouth of the Jaik; and Kislar, on the eastern coasts. The havens, on the opposite side, belong to Persia.
The principal commodities exported by the Russians to Persia, are, English, Dutch, French, and Siberian cloths; vitriol, soap, allum, sugar, Russia leather, needles, coarse, Russia linen, velvets, glass-ware, paper, furs, skins, tea, provisions, furniture, iron, brass, tin, lead, hardware, watches, &c. and those imported are, raw and manufactured silks, Bucharian lamb-skins, rice, dried fruits, spices, drugs, saffron, salt, sulphur, and naptha; also, gold and silver in bars, gold-dust, precious stones, and pearls.
With the Bucharians, who inhabit the south-western part of Independent Tartary, and who are a very commercial people (their caravans travelling through the whole continent of Asia, trafficking with Thibet, China, India, and Persia), the Russians trade largely; but the Chinese trade, carried on at Kiachta, as we have seen, and situated on the frontiers of the Chinese and Russian empires, is by far the most important of all Russia's Asiatic commerce; the gross amount of this trade, in exports and imports, reaching to near 800,000
l.
sterling,
per annum.
The Russians carry on also a commerce with the Turks upon the Black Sea, which, in times of peace, is very considerable. Their great wish is to establish an intercourse with the parts of the Mediterranean, through the Dardanelles. This trade, as the Russians had not till lately any port on the Black Sea, was carried on by the Greeks, Armenians, and Turks. The imports were, Greek wines, raisins, dried figs, almonds, oil, rice, saffron, painted linens, and cottons; the exports, hides and leather, coarse linen, hard-ware, caviare, &c. These Greek and Armenian merchants, returning to Constantinople, supplied the ports of the sea of Azof, and the Euxine, with Russian and European commodities.
The mines of Siberia have been already treated of; to speak more, would be needless. I will then take notice of the new canal of Vishnei-Voloshof, cut by
Peter,
and improved by the present Empress, which opens a communication between the Caspian sea and the Baltic. Indeed, there is no kingdom on the globe, wherein the inland-navigation is carried through such an extent of country as in Russia; for it is possible to convey goods, by water, 4,472 miles from the frontiers of China to Petersburgh, with an interruption only of about 60 miles; and from Astrachan to the same capital, through a tract of 1,434 miles, without once landing them. A plan was also set on foot, to open a communication also with the Black Sea, by means of a canal; and Captain
Perry,
an English engineer, was actually employed for the purpose. The canal was begun, and the length of a mile and a half cut, but it then dropped, from an idea, that it was not practicable. The present Empress, however, revived it; and employed Professor
Lovitz
to undertake it. He took a level of the ground, and traced out the canal, which required to be only five miles long. The great difficulty, was how to procure a sufficient supply of water. However, it again fell to the ground, Professor
Lovitz
being wantonly murdered, by the rebel
Pugatchef.
CHAP. V.
Of their Learning, Institutions,
&c.
HITHERTO the Russians have made but an inconsiderable appearance in the republic of letters; but the late institutions of academies, and other learned seminaries, have given rise to a number of scientific papers, which have been very favourably received all over Europe; and are the best test of their growing eminence in arts and sciences. Three colleges were founded by
Peter I.
at Moscow; one for classical learning and philosophy, one for mathematics, and a third for navigation and astronomy: to these he added a dispensary. Lately, a university has been there founded; and the present Empress has founded one at Petersburgh, with 23 professors; and two seminaries, where youth are taught Greek, Latin, Russ, German, Italian, French and Tartar; history, geography, mathematics, architecture, fortification, artillery, algebra, drawing, painting, music, fencing, dancing, reading and writing.
The Imperial Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh, owes its institution to
Peter I. Catharine I.
settled a fund of 5000
l.
a-year on it, and 15 persons, men eminent for learning and talents, were appointed professors, and the present Empress has largely encouraged it.
An Academy of Arts is also here established, with a revenue of 12,000
l,
a-year, which brings up 300 scholars, from the age of six to eighteen. They are cloathed, fed and lodged, at the expence of the Crown; are instructed in reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing, French, and German. At 14, they may chuse any of the following arts; painting, architecture, engraving, carving, watch-making, turning, casting statues, gilding, and making artificial gems. Prizes are annually distributed to the best proficients; and 12 of those who have obtained four prizes, are sent abroad, for four years, at the expence of the Crown.
There is also, at Petersburgh, a free Oeconomical Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture, well endowed; and, in the true spirit of this institution, several young men are annually sent to England, to learn husbandry. Here is also established a mode of making experiments in agriculture, as singular in its kind, as it is praise-worthy and political. At a place called Sophisk, is a farm of about 1000 acres, which is provided with dwelling-houses, and other necessary buidings. Here, a clergyman of learning and abilities, who studied husbandry many years in England, is settled; and, under him, as assistants, several young men, who have been educated in England. Every species of husbandry is to be introduced; and lectures on the theory and practice given. From each seminary of the empire, two children of priests, who are likely to succeed their fathers in their benefices, are to be placed, in this rural establishment, to learn farming, so as to be able to teach their parishioners. Any nobleman, desirous to improve his tenants, may send a young man also to this school to learn.
In Petersburgh, also, there are two seminaries for the education of the nobility: one for boys, called,
Corps de Cadets;
the other for girls, called,
Le Couvent des Demoiselles nobles.
In the first, the number of persons residing in the house, including the cadets, is 2000: the annual income is 30,000
l.
for the reception of 600 scholars. In 1778, there were 480 nobles, and 64 boys of inferior rank, bred up to be tutors to noblemen's children. The nobles are dressed in uniform, and are intended for the army; they are received at six, and remain 15, years, and are taught French, German, and all military accomplishments. In the summer, they are encamped, for six weeks, near the town, are reviewed, and taught all the manoeuvres of war. Some are annually selected, according to their merit, to travel into foreign countries. The boys are all brought up in the hardiest manner, not clad in furs, even in winter, nor too much indulged with warmth. They are habituated to all kinds of exercises, and particularly to running and leaping. At the further end of a large hall, stands a leather horse, some parts of which are six feet high. This they leap over in every direction, spring on its head, vault upon its back, turn themselves round upon it, poise themselves upon their hands, with their head upon the saddle, and their feet in the air; and then throw themselves on their feet upon the ground. Once or twice, in the winter, these cadets are permitted to give a masquerade and ball, to the principal nobility; and, on these occasions, some of the young ladies, from the female seminary, are invited as partners to the bigger boys.
The female seminary is a large building, erected for a nunnery. It was opened, on its present plan, in 1764; and is endowed, by the Empress, with a revenue of 16,000
l.
a-year. It receives 250 nobles, and 280 tradesmen's daughters. The girls are admitted at five years of age, and kept till 18. These two classes are differently taught, according to their rank. The whole society is taught reading, writing, accounts, and needle-work. The young ladies learn history, geography, French, German, Italian, dancing, music, and drawing. The other girls are employed in houshold-affairs. They prepare, and wash their own linen; are taught to make bread, and the art of cookery. Once a-year, 100 poor women dine in their hall, and are attended by the oldest ladies of the seminary; to each of whom, these ladies give a piece of silver coin, and a few yards of linen, to teach them to administer to the wants of others. Within their walls, they have a theatre, where these young folks act plays; and, at certain times, are permitted to invite their friends, and some few of the cadets, to a ball and supper.
Backward, however, as the Russians are in learning, this country can boast the earliest historian of the north; for, at a period when Poland, Sweden, and Denmark, were unlettered, when even the annalists of Iceland were mute, a monk of a convent at Kiof, was compiling a history of Russia; he died in 1115, and, since him, there have been some eminent writers in history, and the different sciences. But, in order to spread a taste for literature among her subjects,
Catharine
appointed in 1768, a committee, to order and superintend translations of the classics, and the best modern authors, into the Russian tongue; and allowed 1000
l.
a-year, towards defraying the expence of the undertaking. In consequence of this, 83 books were translated, before 1778; translations were then making of 78 more, and 63 were proposed to be translated.
With respect to classical literature, the Greek language is yet taught in very few schools, is scarcely known to the laity, and is a rare qualification even among the regular clergy. Latin is more common, being understood by many of the regular clergy, and not unfrequently cultivated by persons of improved education. Many of the classics have been translated, by natives, into the Russian tongue. Several editions of the most approved Greek and Roman authors, have been published at Moscow and Petersburgh; but the editors have been chiefly foreigners, encouraged to it by the Russian nobility. The archbishops, however, of Moscow and Kherson, are men of profound learning, and good, Greek scholars.
The common language of Russia is a mixture of the Polish with the Schlavonian; their priests, and learned men, speak, what is called, modern Greek, which those who are well acquainted with the ancient Greek, may very well understand. The forms of the Russ letters, have also a strong resemblance to the old Greek alphabet.
CHAP. VI.
Of their Religion.
THE established religion of Russia is that of the Greek church, which is a kind of reform from the Romish church. They disclaim image-worship; but yet have a number of pictures of saints in their churches and houses, to which they pay veneration; but only, as they say, under the idea of mediators. They deny the Pope's supremacy, yet observe a number of fasts and lents. They oblige their bishops, but not their priests, to celibacy, who have no fixed income for their support, but depend on the voluntary contributions of their flocks. Nunneries and monasteries were once very frequent; but many are now abolished, and the abuses of those that remain very much removed. No man can become a monk, till he is turned of 30; nor any female a nun, till she is 50 years of age; and not even then, but with the express permission of their superiors.
The head of their church was a patriarch, whose authority and jurisdiction, the Russians relate, were derived from the patriarch of the Greek church, who formerly resided at Constantinople, and afterwards at the isle of Scio; to whom they had long paid their spiritual subjection, as the Roman Catholics to the Pope, and used to send presents annually; and who being, at length, pressed and driven from thence by the Turks,
Hieronymo,
the then Great Patriarch, being invited and encouraged by the Czar, did, in 1558, come to Moscow, and there resign his patriarchal see to the metropolitan of Moscow, as supreme bishop, and pastor, of the Greek church. This Patriarch of Moscow, was afterwards in very high esteem with the people; and bore, with the Czar, a kind of sovereignty in the empire: for he was not only supreme judge, in ecclesiastical matters, but had a power to reform, by his own authority, whatever he thought prejudicial to good morals; and could pass sentence of death, without acquainting the court with it; former Czars having ordered such sentences to be put into execution, without the least demur, or hesitation.
But on the death of the eleventh Patriarch, in 1699, who was a very old man, and who happened to die soon after
Peter I.
returned from his travels, he refused to have any other Patriarch elected, and took upon himself to be the sole head and governor of his church, giving only to the Metropolitan of Razan, the administration of ecclesiastical affairs; who was, in matters of moment, to apply to the Czar for directions. This transaction chagrined the clergy; and, it coming to
Peter
's ears, that a bishop had talked a little too freely against this new authority of his, his majesty ordered him to be formally degraded; but the other bishops remonstrating against this order, and saying, among other things, that they, being all bishops and but of equal rank, could not do it, unless a new Patriarch, or supreme, was first elected; the Czar created a new bishop on purpose, and ordered him to do it; and, accordingly, the mitre was taken from the head of this contumacious bishop, by the one new created.
The ministers of their churches, whom they call
Popes,
and
Proto popes
(or priests, and arch-priests), never preach to the people, says
Perry,
who wrote the beginning of this century; some few only excepted, who preach before the Czar, in the cathedral church, on great holidays. The height of the learning which the common clergy can be said to be masters of, or, indeed, that is required of them as a qualification for holy orders, is, that they can chant, or read over distinctly, the service of the church, have a good, clear voice, a fair character, and can repeat
Hospidi Pomilio,
that is, "Lord, have mercy upon us," 12 or 15 times in a breath. Nor did they much regard from whence they took their priests; but, since the establishment of their universities, there is a reform in this, as in other things.
Of all their saints, the Russians hold St.
Nicholas
most in esteem; and often speak of him as a god. If you ask them, on crossing a lake, how far it is to such a place, they will tell you, that if it pleases St.
Nicholas
to send them a fair wind, they shall get there by such a time.
There is no great difference between the Russ religion, and that of the Papists, with respect, as I have observed, to their holding saints in adoration, and keeping of holidays; in their belief, that it is in the power of the priest to forgive sins; and in the point of damning, or inveighing against all people, of any other religion than their own. They oblige the clergy to marry one wife, agreeable to St.
Paul
's direction, but no more; and if she dies, he can officiate no longer than one year afterwards, but usually retires to a monastery for bread. On this account it is, that priests in Russia use their wives better than any men in the country. They administer the sacrament, in both kinds, to the laity, as well as the clergy; and though they pray for the dead, they believe, if a man receives the priest's blessing before he dies, and has a certificate for St.
Nicholas,
that he departed in the true christian faith (which certificate is put between his fingers, when laid in his grave), that he shall be admitted into heaven. They differ also from the Papists, and the reformed churches, concerning the Holy Trinity: they say, the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father only, not from Father and Son; and so much reverence his descent in the form of a dove, that very few of them will eat a pigeon. One of the strongest and hottest disputes they have among them, about any difference in point of religion, is the manner of holding their fingers when they cross themselves; one of their Patriarchs having enjoined, that laymen should only cross themselves with two fingers; whereas, there is an obstinate sect among them, that will do it with three.
From a general opinion, that no man can be saved, but those who profess the Greek religion, it is reckoned a great merit, in men of opulence and rank, to bring over proselytes to the Russian faith; nor is a man accounted a christian, till he has been re-baptized. In this ceremony, he is to spit three times over his left shoulder, says
Perry,
and repeat these words, after the priest:
Cursed are my parents, that brought me up in the religion that I have been taught; I spit upon them, and upon their religion.
Thus do they dispute for trifles, whilst they neglect the solid things of christianity.
Like the Roman Catholics, they have also their miracles, and those equally as ridiculous. For the amusement of my readers, I will relate one or two of them. There are 72 monasteries, belonging to the district of the city of Novogorod; the chief of which is dedicated to the famous St.
Anthony,
of whom the Russians relate this story.—That he (being guided by the vision of an angel), came, about 700 years ago, from the mouth of the river Tyber, on the coast of Italy, round through the Great Ocean up the Baltick, and by way of the Lodoga sea, and river Volcoff, to the city of Novogorod, in four days, upon a mill-stone; and, by this miracle, occasioned the thorough conversion of the country to the christian faith.—In the month of June, they have a procession about the city, in commemoration of the day of St.
Anthony
's arrival; a monastery is built on the spot where he landed, and the mill-stone on which he floated, is still to be seen, placed upon one edge, in the church belonging to this monastery, near which the body of St.
Anthony
is buried, in a stone-coffin: and the Russians affirm, as an undeniable testimony of the truth of this miracle, that God has preserved his body from corruption; and they generally expose it to the view of such persons as humbly come to pay their devotions at his tomb.
In the district of Novogorod also, by the river Tiffin, which falls into the Lodoga sea, there is a monastery, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin; of which they relate the following miracle:
viz.
That the church, which is now standing within the walls of the monastery, was originally built on the opposite side of the river; and that the place where it now stands, which is a hard, gravelly bank, for several miles above and below it, was then a mere bog; but that the Mother of God came through the air, in 24 hours, from Constantinople, and, in the night, removed the said church, over the river, into the said bog, which immediately became hard ground; and that she did this, in order to be worshipped by the people on that side of the river to which she removed the church.
Carved images are forbidden in their churches, agreeable to the law of Moses, which forbids the worship of any graven image; but pictures of their saints, they say, are no images, and are approved by God; and tell the following story, as a confirmation.—That a painter, trying to paint a likeness of our Saviour, and finding, that what he painted at one time, did not agree with the likeness he had given at another, was exceedingly uneasy; that our Saviour, accordingly, took compassion on him, appeared, and called the painter to him, asked him for his pocket-handkerchief, laid it on his face, and returned it to the painter, saying, he would, when spread, find his picture upon it.—That, from this original, the Russ painters copy the likeness of our Saviour, with great exactness; and, of course, it benefits the limner's trade, in this country.
One more, and I have done.—They represent the Virgin Mary with three hands, and on the following account. In the kingdom of Casan, a painter had been drawing the Virgin, with our Saviour in her arms, and had so disposed the picture, as to shew both her hands; but having left it, and returning to finish it, instead of two hands, he found three. Conceiving it to be a trick, he rubbed out the additional one, and having finished it, locked it up, and put the key in his pocket; but returning, the second morning, he found a third hand painted again, as before; on which he crossed himself, and was greatly surprised: but, after a little reflection, still looked on it as a trick put upon him, rubbed it out a second time, and secured the room thoroughly. Coming again the third morning, he found the third hand painted again; and going to efface it, the Virgin herself appeared, bade him forbear, and told him, it was her will to be drawn with three hands; which the Russians, to this day follow, and call her the
Cazansky Boagaroditza,
or Cazansky mother of God.
The churches I have already spoken of, except that they have no seats, the Greek ceremonial requiring all persons to stand. But I must not forget their bells, which form no inconsiderable part of their divine worship; as the length, or shortness of their peals, ascertains the greater or lesser sanctity of the day. They are hung in belfries, detached from the church; do not swing, like our bells, but are fixed immoveably to the beams, and are rung by a rope tied to the clapper, and pulled sideways. Some of these bells are of stupendous size. One, in the tower of St. Ivan's church, at Moscow, weighs 3,551 Russian puds, or 127,836 English pounds. It has always been esteemed a meritorious act of religion, to present a church with bells; and the piety of the donor has been measured, by their magnitude. According to this mode of estimation,
Boris Gudonof,
who gave a bell to the cathedral of Moscow, that weighed 288,000lb. was the most pious sovereign of Russia, till he was surpassed by the Empress
Anne,
at whose expence a bell was cast, that weighs 443,772lb. and which exceeds, in size, every bell in the known world. Its value, at 3
s.
a lb. is 65,681£. a vast sum— but every one, ambitious to contribute towards it, threw some gold or silver into the furnaces, which were four in number; and these furnaces having cocks, let off the metal into the mould. Its height is 19 feet, its circumference at the bottom 21 yards 11 inches, its greatest thickness 23 inches. This bell was hung to a beam in a pit; but the beam having been burnt in a great fire which happened at Moscow, gave way, and the bell fell, and a piece broke out of it, large enough to admit two persons a-breast, without stooping. Its diameter, at bottom, is 22 feet, 4¾ inches; at top, 7 feet, 4¾ inches.
To give my readers some idea of the ceremonial of the Greek church, I will lay before them a description, from
Coxe,
who was present, at Moscow, when the Archbishop performed the service, one Sunday morning. On his entrance, the choristers sung a hymn, taken from Psalm cxiii. verse 3, which they finished as he approached the shrine, or sanctuary. Having then said a short prayer, he placed himself on a raised seat in the middle of the church
The bishops, alone, have the privilege of robing in the middle of the church; the common priests, put on their vestments, in the shrine, or sanctuary.
, and taking off his mandyas, or common garment, the attendant priests kissed his hand, whilst they delivered to him the different parts of his costly, pontifical vestments, which, in receiving, he raised to his lips, to kiss the cross embroidered on them, before he put them on. He also placed, on his head, a crown, richly ornamented with pearls and precious stones. His dress was similar to the Imperial robe, formerly worn by the Greek emperors of Constantinople, and which they permitted the supreme dignatories of the church to wear, during divine service; and the same attire still continues, to distinguish the hierarchy of the Greek church established in Russia, from the lower orders. The archbishop being robed, repaired to the sanctuary, and soon after began the service, part of which was performed in the Sclavonian tongue, by the different priests, and part by the archbishop in the Greek language, which he pronounced according to the accent of the modern Greeks. In conformity to the rules of the church, no organ, or other musical instrument, was introduced; but the vocal harmony, which consisted in hymns, was exceedingly pleasing. Lighted tapers, and incense, seemed no less essential parts of their worship, than among the Roman Catholics. Towards the conclusion of the prayers, the archbishop, and clergy, retired within the sanctuary, to receive the communion; the folding-doors that enclose that place, were immediately shut, and none of the laity, at that time, partook of this rite; but a stranger is permitted to view the whole, through a side-door. The communicants stood through the ceremony, and the wine was, according to usual custom, mixed with warm water; the bread, cut into small pieces, was put into the wine; and the elements, of both kinds, were given, at the same time, in a spoon.
The whole service lasted about an hour; and the archbishop, having pronounced the final benediction, again seated himself in the middle of the church, and unrobed.
On the 6th of January, old stile, they have an annual ceremony, of a religious nature, that of blessing the waters. This used to be held upon the Neva; on which occasion, the sovereign attended in person upon the ice, and all the regiments of guards were drawn out, in great solemnity. Its pomp, though still splendid, is now much diminished.—The principal circumstances are as follow:
On the frozen surface of a small canal, between the Admiralty and the Palace, is erected an octagon pavilion of wood, painted green, and ornamented with boughs of fir, open at the side, and crowned by a dome, supported by eight pillars. On the top is the figure of St. John, with the cross; and four paintings, representing some of our Saviour's miracles: on the outside, a carved image of the Holy-Spirit, under the emblem of a dove, was suspended, as is usual in the sanctuaries of the Greek churches. The floor of this edifice is carpeted, excepting a square vacancy in the middle, in which an opening in the ice is cut, and a ladder let down into the water. The pavilion is enclosed by pallisades, adorned with fir-twigs; and the intermediate space also carpeted. From one of the windows of the Palace, a scaffold is erected, to the extremity of the canal, and lined with red cloth. At a time appointed, says Mr.
Coxe,
who was present on one of these occasions, the Empress appeared at this window, and the archbishop, who was to perform the benediction, passed, at the head of a numerous procession, along the scaffolding, into the octagon, round which were drawn up a few soldiers of each regiment quartered at Petersburg: after having pronounced a few prayers, he descended the ladder, plunged a cross into the water, and then sprinkled the colours of each regiment. At the conclusion of this ceremony, the archbishop retired, and the people rushed, in crowds, into the octagon, drank the water with eagerness, sprinkled it upon their clothes, and carried home some of it, to purify their houses.
CHAP. VII.
Of their Constitution, Government, Laws, Revenue, &c.
THE government of Russia is the most absolute in Europe: there is not even the appearance of the least barrier between the people, and the will of the sovereign. All ranks are equally slaves to the Crown, not subjects; and their punishments shew the spirit of the legislature. The greatest nobility are liable to be seized for the most trifling offence, and banished to Siberia, their estates confiscated, and their families ruined; or they are liable to suffer the knout, that is, to be whipped to death; or undergo other violent punishments, such as having their tongues cut out, to be hung up by the ribs, and many other inflictions of barbarity, which shew the cruelty of despotism, without having its good effect. The secret court of chancery, which is a tribunal composed of a few ministers chosen by the sovereign, leaves the lives and fortunes of all families at his mercy; and the nobles of Russia, thus brought under the yoke of the most dreadful slavery, do not fail to retaliate on the people, who are slaves to the nobles, as well as to the sovereign.
The inhabitants, in general, may be divided into four orders.—1. That of the nobles, and gentry; 2. That of the clergy; 3. That of the merchants, and tradesmen; and, 4. That of the peasants.—The first three, include almost all the free subjects of the empire; the latter, all the vassals, or slaves.
The nobles, and gentry, are the sole persons who, in the spirit of feudal despotism, have a right to possess land; but, instead of appearing themselves, according to the tenure of that system, at the head of their retainers, are now only expected to serve in the army, and are obliged to furnish recruits, in proportion to their estates.
In Russia, as in oriental governments, there is little distinction of rank among the nobility, excepting what is derived from the service of the sovereign. No family of rank derives any solid benefit from hereditary descent. The importance of a noble house, of immense property and official honours, is almost annihilated, on the death of the chief; because, the property he leaves behind him, is equally divided among his sons; and because, titles, though hereditary, do not, independent of the favour of the Crown, add any weight to the wearer: those of prince, count, or baron, conveying, in themselves, little distinction, unless accompanied with some high, civil, or military employ. According to the system introduced by
Peter I.
but which has been abused since his time, every person takes precedence from his military station; and he must rise, in regular gradation, from a corporal to a field-officer: yet this is rather eluded, gentlemens' sons being made corporals in their infancy. And although the law of
Peter I.
which compelled every gentleman to serve in the army, on pain of degradation, is now overlooked, yet no one, under the rank of a major, let his fortune be ever so large, is permitted to drive more than two horses; under that of brigadier, more than four. A nobleman of the highest fortune and distinction, who has never been in the army, is not allowed, but by especial favour of the Crown, to use a carriage in the capital, drawn by more than one horse; though a merchant may have two. There are various methods, however, of conferring military rank, and the privileges attendant on it. The high-chamberlain,
ranks
as major-general; secretaries of state, as officers; and, contributors to the foundling-hospital at Moscow, as lieutenants.
These regulations, and the easy acquisition of military rank, has induced Mr.
Schloetzer,
a German settled in Russia, to express himself, with some humour, in the following manner:—
A nobleman is here nothing; his situation in the army, alone, marks the value of his existence. A physician has the
rank
of major, and dares, as a staff-officer, put four horses to his carriage, whilst others can only drive two. An apothecary, in the Imperial service, has the
rank
of a captain; his apprentices, that of ensigns; and the two surgeons of the district, have the rank of lieutenants.
—But, however ridiculous these promotions may appear, they are founded on principles of the soundest policy; for, as by a decree of
Peter the Great,
every officer is noble during life, and the children of a staff-officer, are classed among the nobility; any institution tending to increase the number of this order of men, who alone are entitled to possess land, must be beneficial to society. On their own estates, the nobles, and gentry are almost uncontroled.
2. Of the church, the sovereign is the head; the ecclesiastic authority being consigned to a tribunal, called, the Sacred Synod; which is composed of the sovereign as president, the metropolitan archbishop, the vice-president, and a number of counsellors and assessors.
The clergy are divided into regular and secular; the first are monks, the second, parish-priests. The principal wealth of the church, was centered in the monasteries, which had estates to the amount of 400,000£. a-year; and, like all other landholders, enjoyed uncontrouled authority over their peasants, who held under them. But the present Empress has annexed these church-lands to the Crown, and given annual pensions to the hierarchy, the dignified clergy, and the monks. The archbishops, and bishops, receive about 1000£. a year; and the subordinate eeclesiastics, in proportion.
All the dignitaries of the church are chosen from the order of monks. These are archbishops and bishops, archi-mandrites, or abbots, and igoomens, or priors. There are 33 archbishops and bishops; and, throughout Russia, 159 monasteries, governed by 58 archimandrites; and 99 ignoomens, and 67 nunneries. There are 2,677 monks, and 1,299 nuns. Other priests, and ecclesiastics, belonging to the nunneries and cathedrals, are, in number, 1,537.
The papas, popes, or parish-priests, in Russia, are generally the very refuse of the people; many of them cannot even read. These deliver the service from memory; a chapter of the New Testament, or part of a homily, which they repeat every Friday and Sunday. Besides the surplice-fees, which, in the poorest benefice, amounts to 4£. a-year; and, in the most profitable, to but 24£. They have only a wooden house, scarcely superior to that of the meanest of their parishioners; and a small portion of lands, which they cultivate usually with their own hands; whilst the highest dignity to which they can ever attain, while they continue married, is that of proto-pope of a cathedral, whose income scarcely exceeds 20£. a-year.—No wonder, then, they are so illiterate, when they have so little encouragement to be otherwise! The Empress has, to make amends for this, had a number of sermons, inculcating the moral duties, printed in the Russian language; and these are distributed among the parochial clergy, and occasionally read by them, in time of divine service. The children of the secular clergy are all free, and are usually brought up for orders, or employed in the service of the church.
All the clergy wear long beards, and are distinguished from the laity, by suffering their hair to stream, for a considerable length, over their shoulders, without being tied, or curled. Their dress is a square bonnet, and a long robe, of a black, or dark colour, reaching to their ancles. The clergy do not mix with the polite world, being men of low breeding, and extremely ignorant; and, the dignitaries of the church, seclude themselves, from choice.
3. The third class, are those between the nobles and the peasants, the mercantile part of the people. These are exempted from the poll-tax, and from being draughted for either army or navy (on condition of their paying one
per cent.
of their capital employed in trade, to the Crown), two situations considered, in this country, as indubitable marks of servitude.
It is a circumstance worthy of remark, that the Russian merchants, and tradesmen, seldom keep any book of account, as few of them can either read or write, and are unacquainted with the knowledge of figures. Their manner of reckoning, is by a kind of machine, with several rows of wires, on which beads are strung. The beads on the first row, stand for units; those on the second, for tens; and so on: and, by this machine, they can add, subtract, multiply, and divide, with facility and exactness.
4. The fourth order of subjects, are the peasants; which, except those of Finland and Carelia, the Ukraine, and a few others, are all vassals, or slaves. These may be divided into peasants of the Crown, and peasants of individuals.
Those of the Crown inhabit the Imperial demesnes, and are about a sixth part of the whole. They are under the jurisdiction of the Imperial bailiffs; and, though liable to great exactions from these petty tyrants, yet, being under the protection of the Crown, are much more secure of their property, than the peasants of individuals. Many of these have been made free, and have enrolled themselves among the merchants and traders. But,
The peasants belonging to individuals, are, the private property of the land-holders, as much as are their implements of husbandry, or herds of cattle; and the value of an estate is estimated, as in Poland, by its number of boors, and not by its number of acres. With respect to the lord's own demands upon his peasants, he is restrained by no law, either in the exaction of any sum, or in the mode of employing them. He is absolute master of their time and labour: some he employs in agriculture; a few he makes his menial servants, and perhaps without wages; and, from others, he exacts an annual payment. Each vassal is rated according to the arbitrary will of his master. Some pay four or five shillings a-year; others, engaged in trade, contribute in proportion to their profits. A mason shall pay 6£. a-year; a smith, 12£.; and some, as high as 20£. The capital they may acquire by trade, is liable to be seized, and there can be no redress; for, according to an old, feudal law, a slave cannot institute a process against his master. Some of the Russian nobility will send their vassals to Moscow, or Petersburgh, to learn trades, and then employ them, on return, on their own estates, let them out for hire, sell them at an advanced price, or receive from them an annual compensation, for a permission to carry on their trades for their own advantage.
They formerly could punish their slaves as they pleased, and with any degree of cruelty, so that it extended not to death; but, by the new code of laws now enacted, this enormous power of the lords is restrained. A peasant may, however, obtain his liberty three ways. 1. By manumission; which, on the death of his master, is frequently granted to his domestics; 2, by purchase; and, 3, by serving in the army, or navy: a peasant being free, from the moment of his enrollment, and continuing so when discharged. A law is now past, to oblige every nobleman, whose estate consists of a certain number of families, to enfranchise one of the most industrious families yearly; when so set free, he has a farm assigned him, and the Empress makes him a present of some implements; and, after three years, he is obliged to pay his old master a good rent for that farm. This is done to induce the land-holders to take rent for their land, instead of services.
The vast empire of Russia was distributed into nine extensive governments. Each government was subdivided into provinces; and each province, into districts, or circles. Over each government, was appointed a governor; over the provinces, a waywode, and his officers, who formed a chancery; and over the districts, an inferior waywode, or a kind of justice of peace. This mode of governing was found defective, and the Empress has established a new one; the heads of which are as follow:
The nine extensive governments, are distributed into a larger number, each containing from 3 to 400,000 people. One, or more, of thes
governments, is superintended by a namestnick,
lord-lieutenant; and, each of them, has a vice-governo
a council, civil and criminal courts of judicature, some of whose members are appointed by the Crown, the others chosen by the nobles; and, in each government, there are also superior tribunals to appeal to, without coming to Moscow, or Petersburgh.
In short, Russia, with respect to the vast mass of its people, is now nearly in the same state in which the greatest part of Europe was plunged in the 11th and 12th centuries; when the feudal system was gradually declining; when the unbounded authority of the landholders over their slaves, was beginning to be counter-balanced by the introduction of an intermediate order of merchants; when new towns were continually erecting, and endowed with increasing immunities; and when the Crown began to give freedom to many of its vasfals. The completion of these plans have, in a few centuries, brought Europe to its present state; and, as the legislature of Russia, has now the history of other nations to refer to, it is not to be doubted, but this country, under a wise institution, will reach the perfection of European states, in a much shorter period.
The revenues of Russia, besides the imposts paid by the Ukraine, and the provinces conquered from Sweden, chiefly arise from the poll-tax, the duties of import and export, an excise upon salt, the crown and church-lands, the mint, the sale of spirituous liquors, &c. which, in the whole, amount to about 6,144,968£. sterling, which, at the accession of
Peter the Great,
did not exceed one million. Much of the revenue arises from monopolies; the whole trade to China, belongs to the Crown; so does that of rhubarb, pot-ashes, and spices, hemp, iron, beer, and brandy. Of this revenue, the expences of army and navy amount to about 3,072,485£. those of the civil establishment, to 2,272,483£. and the remainder, or 800,000£. is appropriated to the privy-purse of the Empress. But though this 800,000£. is equal to 2,400,000£. English, it is difficult to conceive, how she is able to maintain the magnificence of her court, the number of public institutions, the numerous buildings (which, in time of peace, rise to 200,000£. yearly), which are raised at her expence, the liberality with which she encourages the arts and sciences, the many purchases she is continually making, all over Europe, and the immense distinctions which she confers on the most favoured of her subjects;—and yet the state is free from debt.
The standing army of Russia, is computed at near 250,000 regular men; besides which, the Empress can always assemble a body of 40 or 50,000 Kalmucks, Cossacks, and other irregular troops; and as excellent a train of artlllery as any in the world. The regulars consist chiefly of infantry, except about 60,000 horse; and include all those who wear uniforms, and are trained to European discipline. When properly disciplined, they are very excellent soldiers; being brave, steady, obedient, patient of fatigue and hardship, and scarcely ever guilty of desertion.
They are so naturally fearless, says Captain
Perry,
as not to be discouraged at death. I have seen, says he, several of them walk to execution, with chains on their legs, and wax tapers burning in their hands, and as they passed the crowds, bow to them, and say,
Prostee Brats,
that is, "Adieu, brothers!" and the people make the like reply to them, bidding them adieu! and have laid down their heads on the blocks, and resigned their lives with a steady countenance. This natural fearlessness, their being constantly exposed to the extremes of heat and cold, and their custom of bathing once or twice a-week, through their lives, as I have described, makes them fit to encounter any thing; so that it is said, let the Russians have but good officers, and they will not fail to make good soldiers. The uniform is green, turned up with red, white waistcoats and breeches. The troops, in general, are raised at little or no expence; and, whilst in their own country, subsist▪ chiefly on provisions furnished them by the country-people, according to their internal valuation.
If we judge from the present state of the Russian army, we may look for great success in any war. The men may be all called veterans. It has not any neighbours, to whom it is not much superior in force. Poland is at its mercy. Prussia is not equal to her, and will never be able to make another stand against her; the Russian army being now more powerful, more numerous, and with an artillery inferior to none—an advantage she never had before. Poland behind her, three-fourths of it absolutely in her power to winter in, in a Turkish war, instead of falling back to Russia.
The present state of the Russian navy, promises also well to the empire: full of hands, and full of ships, new ones every day launching at Petersburgh, and all the old ones repairing. She has many ship-carpenters at Tanais, on the Black Sea, and will be there extremely formidable. Russia produces every article necessary for the construction and equipment of ships, which are chiefly built at Cronstadt, Petersburgh, and Archangel. Manufactures of cordage, and sail-cloth, are established in different parts of the empire; and the magazines of Petersburgh and Archangel, are always plentifully stored with large quantities of both these articles. In 1778, the navy of this country consisted of 38 ships of the line, 15 frigates, 4 prames, and 109 gallies. At Cronstadt, there is an Imperial hospital for sailors, and an academy for marines, and officers of the navy. This, in 1778, contained 370 cadets, who are cloathed, maintained, and taught at the expence of the Crown. They are admitted at the age of five, and are suffered to remain there till 17. They learn accounts, mathematics, drawing, fortification, and navigation; and have masters in the French, German, English, and Swedish languages. They are trained to naval affairs, and make an annual cruise on the Baltic, as far as Revel.
Indeed, what gives great weight to the naval strength of Russia, is the number of her gallies, which carry from 100 to 300 men, six or eight only of which are sailors. Rowing is, to the Russian soldiers, what swimming was to the Romans. Every foot-soldier learns to handle the oar, at the same time as the musquet; by which means, without maritime commerce, and without embargoes, the Russians have always crews ready for their gallies. These, says Count
Alzarotti,
are here the proper things. Be there never so little water, there is always enough for them; they glide between the little islands and the rocks, and can land any where. They are all armed with two pieces of cannon on the prow, and furnished with chace and swivel-guns on the sides. An army of 30,000 men is transported in them with ease. They cast anchor every night, and land where it is least expected. When disembarked, they draw them up on land, range them in a circle, with their prows and artillery pointed outwards, and thus they have a fortified camp presently. They leave five or six battalions to guard it; and, with the rest of their troops, over-run the country, and lay it under contribution. The expedition ended, they re-embark, and begin again, in other quarters; and sometimes they transport these vessels from one water to another, over a steep of land, as was practised by the ancients. These gallies are built at Petersburgh, of a species of oak, which is at least two summers on the road before it arrives. It comes ready cut by the carpenters in the province of Casan, brought all the way by water.
Could Russia obtain a free passage from the Black Sea, through the Dardanelles, into the Mediterraneax, which she aims at, with Azoph and the Crimea in her hands, as it is, she would then have a free navigation from all parts of the empire, by means of the rivers Tanais and Donetz, down to Azoph; that port would then be the grand magazine of all the commodities of the empire, where her ships would load for distributing them through all the fouthern countries of Europe, and on the coast of Africa; at the same time that Petersburgh sent them to all the northern ones. This trade would give them a new export, perhaps of more consequence than all the others put together, that of corn. The finest territories of Europe for husbandry, are said to be the tracts on the north of the Black Sea, including the province of the Ukraine. At present, these countries have no vent for such a product, and, therefore, raise no more than for their own consumption; but open the Dardanelles to them, and this territory would be much better for supplying the best corn-markets in Europe, than those which at present supply them, and would gain the exclusive trade likewise of serving them with naval stores.
The Turks will never submit to a Russian navigation, through the heart of Constantinople (which would be an overthrow of their empire); unless they were first reduced to the last extremity. This will depend on the naval force of the two empires in the Black Sea.
Though capital punishments, except in cases of high treason, in this country, are apparently suppressed, they are not so, in fact; for, though the criminal laws do not,
literally,
sentence malefactors to death, they still consign many to that doom, through the medium of punishments; in some circumstances, almost assuredly, if not professedly, fatal; which mock with the hopes of life, but, in reality, protract the horrors of death, and embitter, with delay, an even which reason wishes to be instantaneous: for, when we consider, that many felons expire under the infliction of the knout; that several are exhausted, by the fatigue of a long journey, to the remotest regions of Siberia, a distance of 4,776 miles; and that the forlorn remnant perish, in general, prematurely, from the unwholsomeness of the mines; it will be difficult to view the doom of these unhappy outcasts, in any other light, than that of a lingering execution.
According to the present penal laws, offenders are punished in the following manner. Persons convicted of high-treason, are either beheaded, or imprisoned for life. Felons, after receiving the knout, having their nostrils torn, and their faces marked, are condemned, for life, to work in the mines of Nershink: petty offenders are either whipped with a kind of cat-o-nine tails, transported into Siberia as colonists, or sentenced to hard labour for a stated period. Among the colonists, are included peasants, arbitrarily consigned to banishment by their masters, who are empowered to inflict this punishment, assigning only the cause of the offence.
All these persons, felons and others, are transported, in spring and autumn, from different parts of the Russian dominions. They travel part of the way by water, and part by land; are chained in pairs, and fastened to a long rope: at night they are carried to different cottages, and guarded by the soldiers who conduct them. When the whole troop arrive at Tobolskoi, the governor assigns the colonists who have been bred to handicraft trades, to different masters in the town; others, he disposes of as vassals, in the neighbouring country: the remainder of the colonists go on to Irkutskaja, where they are disposed of by the governor, in the same manner. The felons then proceed, alone, to the district of Nershinkaja, where they are condemned to work in the silver mines, or at the different forges.
The knout, or knoot, is a thong about the thickness of a crown-piece, and about three-quarters of an inch broad, and rendered extremely hard, by a peculiar kind of preparation; it is tied to a thick, plaited whip, which is fastened, by an iron ring, like a flail, to a short, wooden handle. The executioner, before every stroke, recedes a few paces, drawing back his hand which holds the knoot, then bounding forwards, applies the fiat end of the thong, with considerable force, to the naked back of the criminal, in a perpendicular line, reaching six or seven inches from the collar to the waist. He begins by hitting the right shoulder, and continues his strokes, parallel to each other, quite to the left shoulder; nor does he cease, till he has given the number of lashes, agreeable to the sentence, from one to three hundred, or more. The reader may judge of the great force which a skilful executioner can give to this instrument, when he is told, that if he receives a private order, he can dispatch the criminal, by striking him two or three blows upon the ribs. There are other ingenious contrivances to punish criminals, far worse than death; but as I trust the feeling of an English reader, will rather be excused the relation of them.
I will close this subject, with some account of the pirates that infest the larger rivers, which is attributed to the severities of the masters of fisheries to their vassals, near the mouths of the Jaik and the Wolga. Whenever they are warmly pursued, and distrested for support, they run their vessels ashore, turn Mahomedans, and put themselves under the protection of the Persians. These robbers often go in gangs of 30, 40, and sometimes 80 persons, in row-boats, which carry from 20 to 30 hands; they equip themselves with fire-arms, and their general practice is, to board immediately; for where a fierce resistance is apprehended, they seldom attack. Few of the Russian merchants transport any cargoes of value down the Wolga, without a convoy. The soldiers who are sent after them, are ordered to take them alive, from an apprehension, that a latitude to kill, might, through the strong temptation to plunder, in a soldier's breast, subject the innocent to suffer for the guilty.
The Armenians are generally intrepid, and fight bravely in defence of their property; but the Bourlacks, who navigate the Wolga, are so extremely intimidated by these robbers, that, as soon as they appear, they are panic-struck. They submit immediately; and the master of the vessel, or the merchant, being thus at their mercy, is happy to escape with life; if he attempts to defend himself, and is conquered, he may be sure of being barbarously murdered.
As the cruelties of these men are very great, so is their punishment, when taken. A float is built, in size according to the number of delinquents, and a gallows erected on it, to contain a sufficient number of iron hooks, on which they are hung up alive by the ribs. The float is launched into the stream, with labels over their heads, signifying their crimes, and orders are given, to all towns and villages, on the borders of the river, on pain of death, not only to afford no relief to any of these wretches, but to push off the float, should it land near them. Sometimes, their partners in wickedness meet them, and, if there are any signs of life, take them down, or shoot them dead; but, if they are caught in these acts of illegal mercy, they are hung up, without the ceremony of a trial.—They tell of one of these miscreants, who had the fortune to disengage himself from the hook, and though naked, and trembling with pain and loss of blood, got ashore. The first object he saw, who could afford him any relief, was a poor shepherd, whose brains he beat out with a stone, and then took his cloaths.—These malefactors sometimes hang thus three or four days, and sometimes five days alive. The pain generally produces a raging fever, or phrenzy, which carries them off, imploring the relief of water, with the most horrid imprecations.
A. Map of the Empire of China▪
A DESCRIPTION OF CHINA, From
Amiot, Verbiest, Lockyer, Premare, Du Halde, Le Comte, Dampier, Cunningham, Kircher,
and Others.
CHAP. I.
Of the Country, Rivers, Canals,
&c.
AS the Chinese are at so great a distance from us, and are so very unwilling to admit foreigners among them, the best accounts of them we can collect, are from those Jesuit missionaries who dwelt among them, and who traversed the whole empire, in order to make converts to christianity. And, though the accounts we have received, from these missionaries, have been written some years, yet, as the Chinese are so bigoted to their ancient customs, and so prejudiced in favour of what their ancestors did, that the same usages, manners, &c. which were prevalent in China 4000 years ago, have not been changed with time, but have continued exactly the same for 40 centuries; we may rely on the faith of these men, and believe, that no alteration has taken place, within the last 50 or 60 years. As the persons employed, by the several India-companies in Europe, never penetrate further than into the suburbs of Canton, we can learn very little from them.
Great Tartary and China are now united, and make but one mighty empire, comprending all the eastern side of the continent of Asia. Chinese Tartary is bounded on the north by Siberia, a vast tract of country belonging to the Russians, as we have seen in the second, third, and fourth volumes, of this work; on the east, by the gulph of Kamtschatka, another country of the Russian empire; and, on the west, by the country of the Kalmucks, established between the Casghar and the Caspian sea. On the south, it is united to China, separated only by the famous wall, and, with this, makes but one empire; China extending to the Chinese, or Great, South Sea.
This celebrated wall, of which so many travellers have spoken, divides Chinese Tartary from China, and was built 220 years before the birth of Christ. It was erected to defend China from that part of Tartary which is now become a branch of the empire; of course, this astonishing barrier, is become almost useless. There is nothing in the whole world equal to this work, which is continued for 1200 miles, through three, great provinces, not only carried through low lands and vallies, but also over hills, and up the steep brows of the highest mountains. One-third part of the able-bodied men in China, were employed in building it; and the workmen were enjoined, under pain of death, to place the materials of it so close, that the least entrance might not be left for any instrument of iron. Its solidity, therefore, has preserved it to this day entire.
Verbiest
had the curiosity to take the altitude of one of those mountains over which it extends, and found it was 1,030 feet above the level of the spot where he stood; so that it is built in places, which seem inaccessible, and is strengthened with a series of forts. The beginning of this wall, is a large, stone bulwark, raised in the sea, to the east of Peking, and reaches to the mountains near the city of Kin, on the yellow river; and, between these two places, it meets with no interruption, except to the north of the city of Suen, in the province of Pe-tcheli, where it is intercepted by a ridge of hideous and inaccessible mountains, to which it is closely united; and by the river Hoang-ho, which passes through it, in its course to the sea. As to other rivers, of inferior size, arches have been constructed, like those of a bridge, thro' which they find a passage. It has no kind of support, but what is usually given to common walls, and is almost of the same form. The foundation consists of large blocks of square stones, laid in mortar; but all the rest is of brick. It is, through its whole length, wide enough for five or six horsemen to travel a-breast, with ease; and, at the top, flat, and well paved with cut stone. It is built like the walls of the common cities of the empire, terraced, and cased with brick; and is from 20 to 25 feet high, with square towers, at the distance of two bow-shots from each other, and embrasures, at equal distances; and where it rises over a rock, or mountain, there is an ascent, by easy, stone-stairs. Mr.
Bell,
who accompanied Captain
Ismailof,
in his embassy to Peking, in 1719, tells us, this wall was begun, and completely finished, in the short space of five years; and, it is reported, that the labourers stood so close for many miles, that they could hand the materials to one another. The whole is so strong, and well built, that it scarcely needs any repairs; and, in such a dry climate, may remain in he same condition for many ages. The gates of this wall are all strongly fortified.
Before I proceed in the description of this empire, I will give my readers a short account of the great revolution which happened in that part of the world, about 150 years ago, which united China with many Tartar kingdoms, and which seated a Tartar prince upon the throne, and by whose descendants it has been governed ever since.
A king of Niuche, one of the little Tartar kingdoms, north-east of China, complained of some abuses put upon his people, by the Chinese merchants; which not being redressed, he resolved to make reprisals; and, accordingly, invaded the province of Leo-tong, which lies without the great Chinese wall. The Emperor sent an army against the Tartar prince, and the war continued some time, with various success.
In the mean time, there happened a famine in some provinces of China, and the people, unable to pay the usual taxes, rebelled, under one
Ly-cungz,
their leader; and, to oppose this man, a great army was raised; but this army deserted to the rebels, who advanced to the city of Peking, and having a correspondence with the Emperor's eunuchs, who had then a principal share in the administration, were treacherously admitted within the walls, and had absolutely entered the palace-gates, before the Emperor had notice of their approach. The unfortunate prince, finding himself betrayed, resolved to break through the rebels, with 600 of his guards then about him, or perish in the attempt; but these, also, basely abandoning him, he retired into a garden, with his only daughter, and having first written a letter to
Ly-cungz,
advising him to spare his subjects, he first stabbed his daughter, and then hanged himself. The Empress, the governor of the city, and many more of the court, of both sexes, either to prevent the barbarous usage they expected from the rebels, or in compliment to the Emperor, chose to dye with him, and became their own executioners. The usurper immediately took possession of the throne, and exercised all manner of cruelties on the poor citizens of Peking.
The usurper then left a garrison in Peking, and marched against the Chinese general sent out against the Tartar prince, carrying that general's father with him; and, having laid siege to a town where that general had shut himself up, he threatened to put his father to death, in the most cruel manner he could invent, unless he surrendered; and soon after put his threats into execution. This general, whose name was
Usangucy,
provoked by his father's death, and the destruction of his prince, made pe
ce with the Tartars, and craved their assistance against the usurper. Accordingly, they marched against him, with their united forces; but he fled back to Peking, where, having burnt and plundered his people, with the spoils, he retired into the province of Xensi.
The citizens of Peking having suffered much from the usurper, considered the Tartars as their deliverers; and
Usangucy
leaving them in possession of Peking, whilst he pursued the rebel
Ly-cungz,
and the rest of the empire being distracted by several potent factions, some declaring for a son of the late Emperor's, whilst others, under the specious pretence of maintaining their liberties, set up for themselves;
Xunchi,
who was already in possession of the capital, got himself declared Emperor, and invited all the Tartars who were before settled in China, as well as the little Tartar princes his neighbours, to remove to Peking; and, by force, expelled all the Chinese inhabitants from the city. The descendants of this man, have continued on the throne to the present day.
Great Tartary, with China, as now united, extends from 21 degrees north-latitude, to 55 degrees; so that, the whole length, from north to south, is 34 degrees, or 2,040 English miles. If we extend it to 60 degrees north, as some do, and take in the island of Haynam in the south, which lies in 18 degrees of latitude, it makes the length of the empire 2,520 miles. In breadth, from east to west, in most places, it is 1,000 miles; and, consequently, its circumference must be 7,000 miles, and upwards.
China then is so extensive, that all its provinces, of which there are 15, cannot enjoy the same temperature; their climate, and the nature of their soil, varies, the nearer to, or more remote they are from the south. Severe cold is felt at Peking, whilst the southern provinces are exposed to excessive heat.
Mandes
oe
says, that, in the northern parts, the complexions of the people are white, and their fruits like those of Europe; whereas, in the south, the people are black, and their fruits, such as are the produce of India: and
Hackluyt
says, the post is three months travelling from the sea-coast to the city of Peking.
The principal mountains of China, are in the northern and western parts of the empire; and the latter are rendered fruitful, by the labour and industry of the inhabitants; but the former, being bleak and rocky, are uncultivated. Some are covered with forests of tall, strait trees, of every species, fit for building, and ship-timber; and very enormous trunks are sometimes removed, to the distance of 300 leagues, by land and water-carriage, for public works. Other mountains are rich with quicksilver, iron, tin, copper, gold, and silver; but the wisdom and prudence of early dynasties, prevented the latter mines from being opened, lest the people should be induced to neglect the natural riches of their soil, by applying to other labours than those of agriculture.
Superstitious natives relate some singular and extraordinary phenomena of their mountains. There are several, they say, which produce nothing but useful and salutary herbs, and where nothing else will grow. They assure us, that others have the property of rendering those immortal who retire to them; that a mountain of Chensi, which has the figure of a large cock, crows sometimes so loud, that it may be heard at the distance of three leagues; that another, in the province of Fo-kien, trembles at the approach of a storm, and shakes to and fro, like a tree, agitated by the wind. But the Chinese admire, above all others, a mountain of Fo-kien; the whole of which is an idol, or statue of the god,
Fo.
This colossus is of so monstrous a size, that each of its eyes is several miles in circumference, and its nose several leagues in extent. It is very extraordinary, that the Chinese, who consider a flat nose as a beauty, should have given their favourite idol one of so prodigious a length. But it evidently appears, that the shape of this mountain is not the work of art. There are some mountains, however, that have been shaped by labour. Such are those of the five horses heads, from their resembling such. Some have very deep and spacious caverns, excavated; and others are pierced through, for a great length. In that of the province of Fo-kien, near the city of Hen-goa, is a handsome terrace, six feet wide, 12 miles long, at the foot of two hills, paved all the way with broad stones, and planted on each side with shady trees, and benches to rest on. There are many of these causeways, cut in the same manner; some between, others by the sides of the mountains, with horrid precipices above and below: and others have steps cut into the rock, from the bottom to the top.
There are not wanting, in this country, volcanoes, or burning mountains; the most remarkable, is that called Lino-sing, which is very high, and vomits fire, cinders, and ashes, and sometimes torrents of sulphur, and other minerals.
Though the gold mines here are not suffered to be opened, the Chinese carry on a good traffick in gold, having plenty of gold-sand washed down, by torrents, from these mountains, in rainy seasons, and caught by fleeces, and other strainers, laid a-cross the water; or found among the sand and mud, of their rivers. Multitudes of people live wholly by this business of gathering gold, which is so pure as to need no refining. As gold is not here coined, it is sold, like other merchandise; the Emperor is the only person who possesses any quantity of gold-plate. They have some few lead mines, but this mineral is very scarce.
Besides common copper, the Chinese have another kind, which they call
Pe-tang,
or white copper; it is known in England, under the name of
Tut-a-neg,
and is so pure and fine, that it approaches near to silver. A number of experiments have been made of it at Peking, which sufficiently prove, that this copper does not owe its whiteness to any mixture. Different works are made of it: but, to render it malleable, they mix it with a little zinc; and, to add to its colour, with a about a fifth part of silver. They have also a yellow copper, resembling gold.
On the sea-coast, there are found many salt-pits, the salt of which is conveyed over all the empire; and the province of Kian-nan supplies such a quantity, as to bring in 32 millions of taëls (each taël 6
s.
English), or 9,600,000£. into the Emperor's treasury.
In several parts of the province of Honan, there is found a sort of salt-earth, which, being boiled and chrystalized, makes a very good, white salt; and, in some places, the ground, after rain, spews up a kind of froth, which is made into an excellent soap. The province of Quangsi, is famed for a yellow earth, which, taken internally, is an antidote to poison; and, by outward application, heals the bite of venemous creatures. There is here, also, a kind of earth, of a fine, vermilion colour, and another of a beautiful white, which the ladies use as cosmetics and rouge. The same province furnishes, also, that valuable clay, in great abundance, of which the porcelain is made.
Quarries of marble, and coal-mines, are so abundant in every province of the empire, that there is, perhaps, no country in the world where it is so plentiful; but they make not much use of the marble in their public buildings. Here are also to be found, in many places, lapis lazuli; and the most beautiful rock-chrystal in the world, of which they make seals, buttons, and a variety of toys. The province of Yun-nan furnishes real rubies, but they are very small: the neighbouring kingdom of Laos, however, has a mine full of precious stones, from which rubies are dug, sometimes as large as a walnut. Emeralds are also found there. The king of Laos has one in his possession, equal in size to an orange; but many are wshed down the current, by a river that crosses this mountain, that weigh a quarter, or a third part of an ounce.
In various channels made by torrents, and in rivers flowing at the bottom of mountains, are found certain sonorous stones, resembling those pebbles which are found in the streams, that rush down through the clefts of mountains. This stone is called
Yu;
large ones are very rare. The biggest yet found, was only three feet long, and about 22 inches broad.
Five distinct properties are remarked in this stone; hardness, weight, colour, grain, and sound. Beautiful
Yu
are so hard, that, when cut and polished like agate, the best tempered steel glides upon them, without making any impression. The more careful Nature has been in their formation, the more difficult it is to cut them; but, the harder they are, the better polish they receive.
The weight of the
Yu
is proportionable to its hardness. An unpolished block, in the Emperor's palace, which, to all appearance, one man can lift, it measuring no more than 30 inches by 6, cannot be moved, but by four men. It is of an irregular figure, and has a green colour; but the most esteemed colour, is that of whey; though there are some of a bright blue, azure, indigo, citron-yellow, orange, logwood-red, pale green, sea-green, deep green, cinder-grey, &c. and some variegated, in veins and shades. The hardiest and heaviest, have always the finest grain. The
Yu
emits sparks, when struck with steel, and resembles agate.
But the rarest quality of this stone, is its singing, or sounding when struck, and yielding an excellent tone. Various stones yield various sounds, according to their grain and hardness. Very hard stones are exceedingly sonorous; some soft ones, emit a very sweet sound; and there are others, as light as a pumice-stone, which give a very agreeable sound. Of these stones, the Chinese make musical instruments.
The chemists and naturalists of Europe have never yet attempted to find out whether some of our stones may not have the same properties. The Romans were certainly acquainted with a sonorous stone, for
Pliny,
when speaking of curious stones, observes, that the stone called
Calcophonas,
or brazen sound, is black; and that, according to the etymology of its name, sent forth, when struck, a sound like that of brass. His words are:
Calcophonas nigra est; sed illisa, aeris tinnitum reddit.
lib. xxxvii. sect. 56.
The Chinese tell us, that this stone was known in their country, so early as 206 years before the Xtian era; and was then the most valuable present that could be made to the Emperor. The musical instrument made in China of this stone, is called
king.
Such an instrument was brought to France, and the late Duke of
Chaulnes
took great pains to search into the nature of the stone: the result of his enquiries is, that it is a species of black marble; this stone, resembling externally what we call touch-stone. He accordingly had a
king
made of the black marble of Flanders, and it was almost as sonorous as that from China; but the stone Yu, of which the Chinese form their most beautiful
king,
is nothing more than a kind of agate.
Among a number of lakes, one of which is 80 leagues in circumference, and another, in the province of Kiang-si, 100 leagues in length, subject, like the sea, to storms and tempests; I say, among these, and an infinity of great and small rivers, that water this vast empire, there are two particularly celebrated. The first is the Yang-tse-Kiang; or Son of the Sea. It rises in Yun-nen; and, after flowing through an extent of 400 leagues, and watering four provinces, empties itself into the Eastern sea, forming an island at its mouth, from the sand it throws up. The Chinese have a proverb, viz.—
The sea hath no bounds, and Kiang no bottom.
—Before Nanking, and at the distance of 30 leagues from its mouth, it is half a league wide. Its navigation is dangerous; and a number of vessels are lost in it almost every day. It flows with great rapidity, from several islands in its course; produces a multitude of reeds, from 10 to 12 feet high, which serves the provinces, through which it passes, with fuel; but when swelled with torrents, carries away the greater part of these islands, and forms others, from their wrecks.
The other great river is, the Hoang-ho, or yellow river; so called, from the yellowness of its water, occasioned, in time of rain, by the yellow clay and sand washed into it. This rises in the mountains which border the province of Te-tchuen on the west; and, after a course of near 600 leagues, a-cross Tartary and China, discharges itself into the Eastern sea, not far from the mouth of the Kiang. It is very broad and rapid, but so shallow, as scarce to be navigable; yet often overflows its banks, and drowns whole villages. Precautions are taken to prevent this, by dikes; but these do not entirely free the neighbourhood from fear of inundation. The inhabitants of the province of Honan, to avert this evil, have surrounded most of their cities, at the distance of three furlongs, with strong ramparts of earth, faced with turf.
The ingenuity which the Chinese display in turning the happy situation of their lakes and rivers to the best advantage, is the admiration of all Europe. One of their chief works for the convenience of trade, is the celebrated Royal canal, 600 leagues in length, reaching from Canton to Peking, and forming a communication between all the southern and northern provinces. Its navigation being no where interrupted, but by the mountain Meiling, where passengers are obliged to travel ten or twelve leagues over land; but, if they will go some way round, through the provinces of Quang-si and Hou-quang, they need not quit their barks at all. It may readily be conceived, what immense labour it must have cost, to form a communication between so many rivers, and how many obstacles must have occurred, in a canal of so vast an extent, in the course of which they have overcome the resistance of Nature, with dikes, moles, &c. In this principal canal, a number of others end, which stretch out into the country, and form a communication between the cities, towns, and villages, as they pass. The patience and perseverance of the Chinese, in these useful undertakings, have surmounted obstacles, that would have discouraged any other people. Such, for example, is part of a canal from Chao king to Ning-po. Near these cities, there are two canals, the waters of which do not communicate; one being 12 feet above the level of the other. To render this place passable for boats, for they have not yet the art of making flood-gates, as in Europe; they have constructed a double glacis of large stones, or rather two inclined planes, which unite in an acute angle at their upper extremity, like the ridge of a barn, and extend, on each side, to the surface of the water. If the bark is in the lower canal, they draw it up the plane of the first glacis, by the assistance of several capstans, till it reaches the angle; when, by its own weight, it slides down the second glacis, into the water of the higher canal, with the velocity of an arrow; and, it is wonderful, that these barks, which are generally very long and heavy laden, never burst asunder, when balanced in the air, on the edge of this acute angle. They are indeed constructed for the purpose, and no such accident ever happens.
Though their skill in navigation is but poor, yet, as there is scarce a city, or a village, throughout the empire, especially in the southern provinces, but what enjoys the convenience of a navigable river, dike, canal, or arm of the sea; wherever there is a town upon the shore, there is another of boats upon the water; and some ports are so blocked up with vessels, that it will take several hours to get cross them, to land. These vessels are made as commodious as houses; and there are many born here, and die in them; and, on board, they keep hogs, poultry, dogs, and other domestic animals, as if they were on shore.
Besides these vessels, there are a prodigious number of floats of timber, perpetually going up and down the rivers and canals, which carry whole villages of people on them. This timber is cut chiefly in the province of Su-chuen, adjoining to India, on the west. These floats are some of them a mile in length, rising two or three feet above the water, on which the people build little wooden huts, or cabins, at equal distances, where they live, till they have disposed of the timber on which they are built. Great quantities of it are thus conveyed as far as Peking, being above 300 leagues from the place where it is cut.
The Emperor has 9,999 large vessels in his service, in the southern provinces.
Magaillans
says, they affect this number, because 9, with them, sounds very pompous. These vessels
(Kieou)
are as large as ships, from 100 to 1000 tons burden, and yet they work them with great dexterity, with a few hands. They are flat-bottomed, the head and stern square, but the fore-part not quite so broad as the stern, and the stern open in the middle, to the end, that the rudder, which they shut up as in a chamber, may be defended from the waves. They have a main-mast, and a fore-mast. The fore-mast has a yard, and a square sail; but the sail of the main-mast is narrow at top, like a sloop's sail. Their masts are not pieced, as ours are, and set one on the head of the other, but are one single tree, prodigously high and thick, and strongly siezed by two side-beams, that strengthen it wonderfully. Their sails are made of a thick matt, strengthened with laths, or split cane, at about two feet distance. Upon the deck they build little rooms, or cabins, from one end to the other, raised about seven or eight feet high, painted and gilded within and without, and so very neat and commodious, as to make the longest voyage tolerable. The mandarins, or great officers of state, often travel together in this manner, and no where spend their hours more agreeably; for here they visit each other without ceremony, and play, and pass away their time, as if they were of one family; which freedoms are never taken, by magistrates, on shore. All ships carry frightful images of their gods, and have altars, and lamps burning before them.
The canals are often lined, on each side, to the depth of 10 or 12 feet, with fine, square, free-stone; and, in some places, with grey marble. Some have banks, 20 or 25 feet high, on each side, so as to require a great number of engines to raise the water into the fields over them. Some are cut more than ten leagues in a straight line. The canal, north-west of the city of Hang-tcheou, is lined on each side with free-stone, with a stone causeway on the top; and houses are built on each bank, as close together as those in a street, and are as full of people; and both sides of the canal are covered with barks. A number of stone-bridges are thrown over these canals, of from three to seven arches; the middle one, always high enough to let a bark pass, without taking down the mast.
Nieuhoff
says, the ships of the Emperor, and governors of provinces, lie in the water like castles; and are divided into apartments for all the uses of state and convenience, and are very well furnished. The windows and doors are made, like grates, with thin, transparent oyster-shells, instead of glass; or else fine linen, or silk, spread with clear wax, ornamented with flowers. Galleries are made without, and the inside is painted with all manner of curious colours. The timber-work is so well jointed with oakum, that there is scarce any appearance of iron-work.—I shall have occasion to speak of these barks again, when I mention their modes of travelling.—The ships which carry fish, called
Saull,
and the Emperor's silks, to court, are 365 in number, finely gilt, within and without, and painted red; and all other vessels strike sail to these. In the province of Nanking, there is a multitude of pleasure-boats, richly gilt and painted, and more like houses than ships, in which many of the Chinese spend their estates; and there is such a vast number of vessels in Fo-kien, that
Nieuhoff
says, the inhabitants offered the Emperor, when he was going to war with the Japanese, to make him a bridge of boats, which should reach from China to Japan (two day's sail). Indeed, there is such a continual and uninterrupted plying of boats, from one place to another, over all the southern provinces, and navigable rivers, and these so numerous, that the country resembles so many Venices, where all the ways and streets are canals.
But, notwithstanding the sailing on their rivers and canals, is exceedingly pleasant in general, it is sometimes very dangerous, from the several, rapid torrents they have to pass.
Le Comte
tells us, he was once on such a stream, when the vessel was whirled round with an incredible swiftness, for a considerable time, and at last dashed upon a rock. That in the province of Fo-kien, for eight or ten days sail, vessels are in continual danger of perishing; for there are so many cataracts, and rocky straights, that it is hardly possible for the boats to pass through, without being dashed to pieces, on one side or other. Every day, almost, some vessel or other is shipwrecked in these torrents; but they have often the good fortune to split near the shores, and the passengers are saved, though sometimes the vessel is dashed to pieces, and the crew buried in a moment. They are usually under sail, or tugged with ropes; but, on great rivers, and in crossing lakes, oars are made use of. The Chinese, continues
Le Comte,
who was often in their perilous voyages, have a knack of sailing, in rapid torrents, which is wonderful and incredible. They, in a manner, force Nature, and make a voyage without any dread, which other nations would even look at with horror. In some of their rivers, the cataracts are continually broken by a thousand points of rocks, that scarce leave breadth enough for the passage of a bark. Nothing but turnings and windings, water-falls, and contrary currents, that dash one against another, and hurry a boat, like an arrow from a bow. You are always within two feet of shelves; and, if you avoid one, you fall upon another, and from that to a third; yet the pilot, with a skill not sufficiently to be admired, escapes shipwreck every moment. There is no people in the world capable of undertaking such voyages, but the Chinese; who are not discouraged at the daily wrecks that happen, and who, if they carried double the number of men, fifteen instead of eight, would avoid many of these calamities; but they would rather hazard their effects and their lives, than be at a trifling charge, more than they thought absolutely necessary.
Their barks, however, are constructed accordingly. They are divided into five or six apartments; so that, if they touch upon a rock, and make a breach in one, the others are water-tight, and keep them a-float till they can stop the hole; and, to moderate the rapidity of the motion, in places where the water is not too deep, they check the velocity of the vessel, by thrusting a pole to the bottom, and bearing against it; so that, when the torrent is even and uniform, let it be as rapid as it will, the boat flows as slowly as on the calmest channel: but when it winds in and out, they have recourse to a double rudder, made in the fashion of an oar, 40 or 50 feet long, which the mariners manage with such skill and dexterity, to drive their vessel on, or turn it right, as they would have it, to fall just into the stream, to shun one rock without dashing on another, to cut a current, or pursue the fall of the water, without dipping headlong into it.
The Chinese have had stout ships from all antiquity; which, in some measure, accounts for their address in navigation. They boast the invention of the mariner's compass, though they have made very little improvement in it. As they have never been exposed to the necessity of fighting naval battles, except on the river Kiang, round and near their own coasts, or in the neighbourhood of the isles of Japan, they are bad sailors, in an open sea. Of vessels destined for sea-engagements, they have several kinds. Those belonging to the port of Canton, are much larger than those employed on the coasts of Fo-kien; the latter are built only of fir, whereas, the vessels at Canton, are constructed of iron-wood. In naval battles, they are found to be much stronger and more useful, though they are heavy, and slow sailors. But these vessels last a long time, and worms never pierce them. They have fast sailing vessels, for pursuing pirates, and carrying dispatches, that draw from six to seven feet water, and no weather prevents them from putting to sea. They have others, to open the waves, that draw only three or four feet water; these have a sharp prow, a helm, a sail, and four oars, and will carry from 30 to 50 soldiers. These, they say, fear neither wind nor billows. The anchors are made of iron-wood.
They have also other vessels, to run among sand-banks, constructed with a flat bottom, for gliding along the coasts of the northern sea, where there is little depth of water; but their best vessels, the swiftest and lightest for sailing, are the hawk's-bill vessels, the prow and poop of which are built in the same manner, so as that they can advance, or retreat, without putting about; and the decks are defended, on each side, by a kind of parapet, made of bamboo, which shelters the rowers, and the soldiers, from the weapons of the enemy.
Some of these vessels are armed with cannon. Each ship has a captain, as ours have, but his business is only to keep the crew in awe, and victual them. In sea-engagements, the soldiers will place a pair of corks under their arms, throw themselves into the sea, and, with their scymitars, attack their enemy, as actively as if on land.
—(The plate represents an attack by pyrates, in one of their large canals.)—
But, with all this adroitness and courage, it may easily be perceived, that a whole fleet of such armed barks, would not be able to stand an attack from only a few of our European ships of war. And if, at the close of this naval account of the Chinese, we may hazard a reflection—fifty years hence may put them on another system of naval war, when they will, probably, have such powerful neighbours as the English colonies in New Zealand may hereafter prove to them.
CHINESE NAVAL ENGAGEMENT
CHAP. II.
Of the Productions.
ALL travellers agree in their accounts of the fertility of China, and of the extent and beauty of its plains; neither enclosures, hedges, or ditches, are seen in them; scarce even a single tree; so careful is the husbandman not to lose an inch of his land. The northern plains, produce wheat; the southern, being low and watery, rice. In many places, the ground yields two crops a-year; and in the interval, between the harvests, the people will sow several sorts of pulse, and other small grain; and yet, famines are frequent in this country: and why? because, in times of scarcity, the Chinese, from their situation, can receive no assistance from their neighbours, and are often under the necessity of supplying them.
Their neighbours on the north are the Mongol, or Mogul Tartars, tributaries indeed to China; but a people so extremely lazy, sowing millet only for their own use, and living principally on flesh.
On the north-east, the province of Leao-tong is very fertile, but too far from Peking to send its provisions there. Besides, all carriage is impracticable, but in winter, when provision is transported frozen.
Korea does not supply China with corn; and as to Japan, on the east, though only three or four days sail from the continent, no Chinese vessel ever yet attempted to go there for provisions; the Japanese either having nothing to spare, or foreign merchants meeting there with too many insults.
The other islands, so far from being able to supply China, are often in want of a supply themselves. What prevents famines in Europe, is the facility with which one country can be supplied from another; but China is destitute of this advantage. Situated, alone, in the extremity of Asia, surrounded by barbarous nations, it must procure, from its own soil, sufficient nourishment for its numerous inhabitants, or a famine will ensue. To avert this calamity, is the constant, grand object of its publlc ministers. Granaries and magazines are erected in every province, and in most of the principal cities, for the relief of the people, in times of scarcity.
China, in its vast extent, contains almost every species of tree known in Europe, and, in the mountains, in the province of Tche-kiang, grow pines, so large, that 40 men may be inclosed in their trunks: but I shall only describe such trees as are peculiar to this country.
One is the tallow-tree, the size of our cherry-tree. Its branches are crooked, its leaves shaped like a heart, and of a bright, red colour. It has a smooth bark, a short trunk, and its top is round and bushy. The fruit is contained in a rind, which, when ripe, and opened, divides into three parts, like a chesnut, and about the size of a walnut. It is the pulp with which these kernels are covered, that has the properties of tallow, and of which candles are made. Not having the art of purifying it, as we do our tallow, it has a disagreeable smell, produces a thick smoke, and a faint light; but they mix it with linseed-oil, which softens and sweetens it.
The next is their wax-tree, which produces a white wax, almost equal in quality to bees-wax. This wax is deposited by a small worm that buries itself in the bark, and forms there a kind of comb, much smaller than a honey-comb. There are two trees in this country, and two only, that afford food to this insect; and, of course, two only from which they can gather wax. One thrives best in dry, sandy soils; the other, in moist, watry places. The first being of a shrubby kind, thrives in the worst of soils, and will grow in any climate. Walls may be covered with it, 10 or 12 feet high; and hedges made of it, in the open fields. The insect that frequents this tree, does not naturally attach itself to it, but must be placed there. This operation is not difficult; and the tree once stocked, always retains them. At the approach of winter, small tumours are observed in the bark, which increase, till they are as large as walnuts. These are so many nests filled with the eggs of the insect, which are called
Pe-la-tching.
When the tree shoots forth its blossoms in spring, it gives life to the insects that cover it. This is the season to deposit nests on those trees that have none; which is thus done: small bundles of straw are made, on each of which seven or eight nests are placed; these bundles are tied to the branches, so as to place the nests immediately on the bark. When the insects are hatched, they run upon the branches, disperse themselves over the leaves, and perforate the bark, under which they retire; but always come forth, at the proper season for making their wax.
About the middle of June, this wax makes its appearance; first, like the fine filaments of soft wool, rising from the bark, and enclosing the body of the insect; by degrees, these filaments become a kind of down, and so, thicker and thicker, during the summer-heats, till it forms a crust, defending the animal from heat, rain, and ants. This crust is the wax, which is gathered before the hoar-frosts come, in September. The Chinese say, if the wax was left too long on the tree, the insects would not make their nests. The wax is white and bright, and preserves its transparency, to the depth of an inch. If an ounce of it is added to a pound of oil, it forms a wax, little inferior to bee's-wax. It is used, also, to heal wounds, prevent swoonings, and allay palpitations of the heart.
The next curious tree they have, is their
Tsi-chu,
or varnish-tree, whose bark and leaves resemble those of the ash, but bears neither fruit nor flowers. It seldom grows higher than about 15 feet; or larger in the trunk, than about two feet, or two feet and an half in girth. The varnish procured from this tree, is a kind of gum, distilled only in summer-nights, from incisions made in the bark, drop by drop, into small shells, placed to receive it in. A thousand trees, in one night, will yield about 20 pounds of varnish.
This varnish is not extracted by the owner of the trees, but by merchants, who purchase a grove of them for the season, at the rate of three-pence a foot. One workman is sufficient for 50 feet of timber, and his pay is, an ounce of silver per month. Whilst this varnish flows, it exhales a malignant vapour, the bad effects of which is prevented, by the workmen anointing their faces and hands with rape-oil, in which a quantity of those fleshy filaments are boiled, that are found in hog's lard, and which do not melt. After eating, they wash their whole bodies with a decoction of chesnut-tree bark, mixed with certain drugs; and, when at work near the trees, put their heads in a sail-cloth bag, in which there are two holes for their eyes, and cover their bodies with a doe-skin apron, tied round their necks and waists; with boots of the same on their legs, and coverings on their arms. Without this precaution, a collector of varnish would be punished for his rashness. He would be soon afflicted, as with a universal leprosy, and would fall a sacrifice to the distemper, if not relieved by those remedies that are sometimes applied, with success, in such cases.
When the varnish is collected, it is put into small casks, closely stopped; a pound of it, newly made, costs him about 20
d.
sterling, and he sells it at a profit of
cent. per cent.
Besides the lustre and beauty this varnish gives to many of the Chinese manufactures, it has the property of preserving the wood from dampness and worms. It often happens, that the gloss of varnished tables, and other furniture, is insensibly destroyed by tea, and other warm liquors; but the secret of restoring to this varnish its shining, black colour, says a Chinese author, is to expose it, for one night, to a white, hoar-frost; or to cover it, some time, with snow;—a method any of our readers, possessed of such varnished wood, may readily try.
A fourth tree peculiar to this country is, the
Tie-ly-mou,
or iron-wood, which grows to the height of our large oaks. Of this wood, the Chinese make their anchors, as I have observed before, it being exceedingly hard, and so heavy as to sink in water.
A fifth is, the
Nan-mou,
or Chinese cedar. This tree is one of the tallest they have; its branches shoot up vertically, grow from the bark only to a certain height, and terminate in a bush, or tufted top. Though called a cedar, its leaves are not like the cedar of Lebanon. Its wood here is considered as not liable to decay. All the palace-pillars, beams and doors, are made of this timber.
The
Tse-tan,
or rose-wood, is the next uncommon tree, and the most beautiful and valuable wood the Chinese have. It is of a black colour, inclining to red, shaped and variegated with delicate veins, which resemble painting: we have seen this wood in England.
The
Tchang,
or camphire tree, is also a production of China. Some of them are above 100 cubits high, and so large in the trunk, that 20 persons cannot enclose them. When old, the bodies of these trees will emit sparks of
e; but their flame is so subtle, as not to injure even the hair of those who are near it. Common camphire, at Peking, is only one penny English per ounce, but it is inferior to that of Borneo. The camphire is obtained from this tree, by chopping the branches very small, steeping them for three days in spring-water, and afterwards boiling them, stirring them with a willow-stick. When they perceive the sap of this chopped wood adhere to the stick, in the form of white frost, they strain it, and throw away the dregs. Next morning this decoction will coagulate, and form a solid mass, which is afterwards purified by another process.
They have another tree, called the
Siang,
which grows as tall as our chesnut-trees, and bears a fruit which dyers use as a substitute for the gall-nut. It grows in barren and mountainous countries.
They have also a kind of pine-tree, called
Keou-ouai,
which grows in Tartary. Its wood is very hard, soon petrifies, and is converted into hones to sharpen tools; but its sap is poisonous, and if any drops spurt on the skin of the woodman, it raises incurable blisters.
The
Tcha-ké
is another uncommon tree, that grows in the northern coasts of China. It has no bark, and will, when green, burn as readily as the driest wood. It makes very good charcoal, that burns free, without either smell or smoke.
The
Tchu-kou,
or paper-tree, is of great value to the Chinese, the inner rind furnishing them with the greatest part of their paper. When its branches are broken, the bark peels off, in form of long ribbands. It is a kind of sycamore, and something like the wild mulberry, but bears fruit like the fig, being full of milk, and adhering to the branches without a stalk. It grows on the mountains, in a rocky soil. The paper is made of the bark.
In the province of Quang-si, they have a tree, which, instead of pith, contains a soft pulp, yielding a kind of flour; and the bread made of it, is said to be exceedingly good.
The
Tse song-yuen-pe,
or juniper-cypress, is one of the singularities of nature, partaking of the properties both of the juniper and cypress, in leaves and branches; some resembling the juniper, others, the cypress. When the tree is young, its leaves are like those of the former; when old, like those of the latter.
The
Bamboo
we are acquainted with. It is a kind of reed, which grows to the height and size of large trees. Although the trunk is hollow, and divided at certain spaces by knots, it is very strong, and capable of sustaining enormous weight. These reeds are used as pipes to convey water. Split and divided into thin slips, they weave them into mats; and paper is made from a paste procured from them, by bruising them, and steeping them in water; and canoes, or wherries, are also built with them. In some parts of China, there are whole forests of them.
The cotton-shrub is one of the most useful in all China. On the same day that husbandmen get in their harvest, they sow cotton in the same field, merely raking the earth over the seeds. As soon as the land is moistened with rain, or dew, a shrub grows up, about two feet high, the flowers of which appear about the middle of August, generally yellow, but sometimes red; to this flower succeeds a button, in the shape of a pod, about the size of a nut. Forty days after the appearance of the flower, the pod opens, and yields three or four wrappings of cotton, extremely white, and of the same figure as the cod of a silk-worm. They are fixed to the bottom of the open pod, and contain seeds for the following year.
With the milky juice distilled from incisions in the stem of the
Kon-chu
shrub, they lay on their gold leaf in gilding. It is stronger than our size; and with the pith of another shrub, called
Tong-tsao,
a kind of cane, resembling our alder-tree, they make their artificial flowers, fruits, and butterflies.
Betel and tobacco is raised here, in great abundance. The betel leaf they chew continually, as strengthening the gums, expelling bile, comforting the brain, and a preservative against asthmas. This shrubs grows like ivy, and twines round other trees. They have also sugar-canes in great quantities, and some spice-trees. Ginger grows wild, which makes a very pleasant sweet-meat, when preserved green.
But of all their trees and shrubs, that which merits most our attention, is the tea-plant, called, by them,
Tcha,
or
Tha.
Of this there are two sorts; the
Song-lo,
or what we call Singlo, or green tea; and the
Vou-y-tcha,
or Bohea.
The tea-plant is cultivated in the fields, almost like vines, and is cropped at a certain height, to prevent it from growing too tall. But we must not confound with real tea, every thing which the Chinese call
Tcha.
What is sold in the province of Canton, as a delicate tea, is merely a kind of moss, which grows on the rocks, near the city of Mang-ing-hien. If this commodity is adulterated, even in China, can we flatter ourselves with having pure and genuine tea in Europe? Perhaps we taste nothing else, like many of the Chinese, than moss from the rocks of Mang-ing-hien.
When the tea-leaves have been collected, they are exposed to the steam of boiling water, after which they are put upon plates of copper, and held over the fire, till they become dry and shivelled, such as we receive them in Europe. Common tea is preserved in narrow-mouthed, earthen vessels; but that used by the wealthy, is enclosed in porcelain vases, or in leaden and tin canisters, covered with fine bamboo-mats. The Chinese, and people of Japan, generally keep their tea a year before they use it; having, as they say, when new, a narcotic quality. When they drink it, they infuse it in hot water, as we do, but drink it without any mixture, and even without sugar.
The tea-shrub seems to be a species of the myrtle, seldom grows beyond the size of a rose-bush, loves a gravelly soil, and is usually planted in rows, upon little hills, three or four feet distance from each other; its leaves are about an inch and a half long, narrow, tapering to a point, and indented, like our rose, or sweet-briar leaves, and its flowers are much like those of the latter. The shrub is an ever-green, and bears a small fruit, which contains round, blackish seeds, about the size of a large pea, but scarce one in a hundred comes to perfection. By these seeds the plant is propagated, nine or ten being put into a hole together, and the plants thence arising, are transplanted into proper ground.
The Chinese know nothing of Imperial tea, and several other names which, in Europe, serve to distinguish the goodness and price of this fashionable commodity. In truth, though there are several kinds of tea, they are the product of the same plant; only differing in colour, fragrancy, &c. according to the difference of the soil, choice of leaves, time of gathering, and mode of preparation. The
Vou-y,
Bohi, or Bohea, is so called from its black colour: this differs from the
Song-lo,
Singlo, or Green tea, by its being gathered six or seven weeks sooner, when the plant is in full bloom, and the leaves full of juice; whereas the other, by being left so much the longer on the tree, loses a great part of its juice, and contracts a different colour, taste, and virtue, being more rough to the palate, and more raking to the stomach. The green tea is most used in China: the bottom leaves of the tree are generally coarser than the upper leaves, and will not fetch so good a price; but the best of tea, in China, will not sell for more than 9
d.
a-pound English, the worst, 3
d.
Bohea tea, if good, should be all of a dark colour, crisp, dry, and with a fine smell; green tea should have a bluish cast, none of the leaves brownish, and should be also crisp and fragrant.
The Chinese have many flowering-trees, unknown to us, one of which I will mention for its curiosity.— This is the
Out-om-chu,
very much resembling our sycamore. The leaves are between eight or nine inches diameter, growing to a stalk a foot long; it is extremely tufted, and laden with clusters of flowers, so very thick that the sun cannot pierce it with its rays. Though the tree is large, the fruit is very small, and is produced in the following manner. About the month of August, there springs out from the tops of the branches, little bunches of leaves different from the other, being whiter and softer, though equally as broad. These are a substitute for flowers, and on the borders, or edges of each of these leaves, grow three or four small grains, or kernels, the size of peas, inclosing a white substance, of a very pleasant taste, like that of a hasle-nut, not ripe.
Besides all the fruits common to Europe, they have some peculiar ones of their own. They have no good kinds of cherries; and, excepting grapes and pomegranates, the fruits they have, in common with us, are much inferior. They have several kinds of olives, different from ours; and their manner of gathering them is curious and convenient.—They bore a hole in the trunk of the tree, put some salt into it, and stop it up; and, at the end of a few days, all the fruit drops of itself.
Oranges, lemons and citrons, are very common. They have many species, besides those transplanted into Portugal; they have one sort, no larger than a billiard-ball, which is most valued, and sent as presents to India; and a fine species of melons. Apricots grow wild; and as to vines, they are considered as bushes encumbering the ground, and are generally rooted up, to give place to other things, no wine being here made. Great quantities are raised in the province of Pe-tch
li; but the fruit is dried, to make raisins of.
The simples and medicinal plants of China, form one of the richest and most extensive branches of its natural history; but as it is not my intention to give a Chinese herbal, I will only mention the rhubarb and the ginseng.
The
Tai-hoang,
or rhubarb, grows in several provinces of the empire. Its stem is hollow, resembles a small bamboo, or Chinese cane, and is very brittle; it rises to the height of three or four feet, and is of a dusky, violet colour; in the month of March, it shoots forth long, thick leaves, very rough to the touch, and these leaves, ranged four by four, on the same stalk, form a calix. The flowers are yellow, and sometimes violet; and, in June, it produces a small, black seed, the size of a grain of millet, which is gathered in September. Those rhubarb roots are reckoned best, that are heaviest and most variegated with veins. Some druggists will disguise their old, decayed rhubarb, by giving it a yellow tincture; but, by handling it, the cheat is discovered, as the powder they use for this purpose will stick to the fingers. Rhapontic is often mixed with rhubarb, by those who send it to Europe; but this imposition may likewise be discovered; the true rhubarb being usually in roundish pieces, and its internal grain, or streaks, running transversely, whereas rhapontic is in longish pieces, with its streaks running lengthways; besides, rhapontic, being chewed, leaves a clamminess in the mouth, which rhubarb does not. It is sold cheap in China; a pound of the best costs only two-pence.
But the most esteemed and valuable of all the plants in China, is the ginseng, which the Manchew Tartars call, the Queen of plants. The Chinese physicians speak of it with a kind of enthusiasm, and enumerate its wonderful properties without end. The root of the ginseng is white and tough, its stem smooth, round, and of a deep, red colour; its height, in proportion to its vigor. From the extremity of the stalk, proceed a number of branches, like radii from a center; each branch has five leaves, finely jagged, or indented, of a dark, green colour, above, and a shining, whitish green, underneath; and, on the upper side, they are beset with small, whitish hairs; from the center of these branches, rises a second stem, without leaves, and bearing a bunch of round berries, of a beautiful, red colour, but not fit to eat.
Jartoux,
who. saw such a bunch, counted 24 berries, containing a white pulp, and two rough stones, like lentil stones. The pedicles on which the berries grow, rise from the same center, and spreading, like the radii of a center, make the cluster of a circular form. This plant dies every year, and its age may be known by the number of stems it has shot forth, of which there are always some marks left on the root.
The Chinese never sow the seed, because it never has been known to grow. This probably gave rise to the Tartar fable; that a bird eats the seed, when put into the earth, or when it drops, but not being able to digest it; voids it with its dung, after it has been purified in its stomach, and that it springs up in the place where it is dropped. It is far more probable, that the germ of this plant is slow in opening, and that the husk which contains it, remains long in the earth before it sends forth any root.
This plant has at all times been the principal riches of Eastern Tartary, where it grows; being never found, but between the 39th and 47th degrees of northern latitude, and between the 10th and 20th of eastern longitude, from the meridian of Peking. All that extent of country is occupied by a long chain of mountains, covered with almost impenetrable forests. It is on the declivity of these frightful mountains, and in the forests, in the neighbourhood of fissures made by floods below rocks, at the roots of trees, and in the middle of herbs of every species, that this valuable plant is found. It never grows elsewhere. It delights in the shade, and seems every where desirous of sheltering itself from the sun; of course, it is naturally an enemy to heat.
No private person is allowed to gather it. It belongs to the Emperor; and he sends, annually, 10,000 soldiers into Tartary, to collect it; and this army of herbalists, spread themselves over the ground methodically, and do their business with great arrangement. They suffer many hardships upon this expedition; carrying with them neither tents nor beds, but a quantity of baked millet, as provision. These men sleep in the open air, and are thus employed six months in every year.
The Chinese physicians, says
Jartoux,
have written whole volumes on the virtues of this root, and introduce it into almost all the remedies they prescribe to the Great. Notwithstanding the great quantities of it procured from Tartary, it is always very dear in China; one ounce of this root, even at Peking, costs seven or eight ounces of silver.
Lafitau,
a Jesuit missionary, discovered this root in Canada, in the mountains, not far from Montreal. The Indians called it
Garent-oguen,
which signifies,
legs and thighs of things separated;
and the Chinese name,
Ginseng,
implies,
man's thigh,
the root resembling, but badly, the shape of a man, downwards.
Lafitau
's Garent-oguen answers
Jartoux
's description of the Ginseng exactly, and leaves it beyond a doubt, but that they are one and the same plant; which
Lafitau
conceives to be a species of Mandragora, or Mandrake, and to be the Mandragora of
Theophrastus,
which was known to the ancients, and lost since their time
Such naturalists as wish to know more of this root, and the conjectures above concerning it, may peruse the
Abbè Grosier's General Description of China.
. None of it is found at Quebec; but it is known to every one at Montreal, being sold there by the Iroquois Indians at a great price. It is to be met with, in abundance, towards the south, round Montreal, in the neighbourhood of Lake Huron, and in the country of the Iroquoise, which is similar to Tartary.
Lafitau
makes the following reflection, on the similarity of the Chinese and Canadian names—That the same signification could not have been affixed to the Chinese word, and to that of the Iroquoise, without a communication of ideas; and, consequently, of persons: of course, it confirmed him in the opinion that he had before entertained, and since corroborated by the last voyage of Captain
Cooke;
that America and Asia formed only one continent, and that they were originally united, either by Tartary, or to the north of China.
Before I close my observations on the drugs of China, I must not omit one, the composition of which will, doubtless, appear as singular, as the numerous properties ascribed to it. It is called
Ngo-kia,
from the city Ngo-hien, in the province of Canton; where there is a natural well, 70 feet deep; and which, as the Chinese say, has a communication with some subterranean lake, or other large reservoir. The water drawn from it, is very clear, and much heavier than common, and, if mixed with muddy water, purifies it, and renders it limpid, by precipitating all its impurities to the bottom of the vessel. This water is employed in making the Ngo-kia, a kind of glue, procured from the skin of a black ass. The animal is killed and flayed, and the skin steeped for five days in water drawn from this well. After which, it is scraped and cleaned, cut into small pieces, and boiled, over a slow fire, in the same kind of water, till reduced to a jelly, which is then strained, whilst warm, through a cloth. When this glue is cool, it is formed into square cakes, on which the Chinese imprint characters, their coats of arms, or the signs of their shops.
This well is the only one of the kind in China. It is always shut, and sealed by the governor of the place, with his own seal, till the customary day of making the Emperor's glue. The operation continues from the autumnal harvest till March; during which time, merchants treat for the purchase of the glue, with those who guard the well, and with the people who make it.
As this drug is much sought after, and the quantity made at Ngo-hien, not sufficient to supply the whole empire, there are not wanting persons who counterfeit it, and make a spurious kind, from the skins of horses, mules, camels, and sometimes even from old boots. A number of virtues are ascribed to this drug. They assure us, that it dissolves phlegm, facilitates the play and elasticity of the lungs, removes difficulty of breathing, comforts the breast, increases the blood, stops dysenteries, promotes urine, and strengthens children in the womb.
CHAP. III.
Of their Agriculture and Animals.
HAVING spoken of the national productions of this country, I cannot more opportunely speak of Chinese agriculture: their gardening I will defer, till I treat of their houses.
Several of the Chinese emperors have thought it worthy their royal care, to promote and teach their subjects husbandry; particularly the Emperor
Ven,
who held the plough himself: and his Empress planted mulberry-trees, and bred silk-worms in the palace, to set their subjects a good example. All the cloaths that the Empress wore, were of her own making; and a feast was instituted, and is continued to this day, when the governors of the several towns and provinces, assemble the peasants about the vernal equinox, and march before them in procession, with garlands, music and streamers, and the instruments of husbandry carried before them.
On the 15th day of the first moon in every year; which corresponds to the beginning of March, the Tribunal of Ceremonies announces the return of spring to the Emperor, by a memorial, pointing out every thing he is to do on this festival. He first names 12 of the most illustrious persons in his court to accompany him, and to hold the plough, after he has performed his part of the ceremony. Among these, are always three princes of the blood, and nine presidents of supreme courts. If they are too old, or infirm, for this task, proxies are appointed, by the Emperor, to act for them.
This feast is preceded by the sacrifice of a bullock, which the sovereign offers to the
Chang-ti,
or Supreme Being, throwing himself prostrate on the earth, or knocking his head nine times against the ground. He, and his suite, prepare themselves for this duty, by three days fasting and continence. Others are appointed on the evening before the ceremony, to go and prostrate themselves at the sepulchre of his ancestors, and to acquaint them what he is going to do the day following.
The sacrifice being performed, and plenty being prayed for, in favour of his people, by the Emperor, under the title of Sovereign Pontiff, in an open place without the city; he lays aside his royal robes, takes the plough in his hand, to which two oxen are yoked, magnificently cloathed, and turns up several furrows. Forty labourers are selected to yoke these oxen, and prepare the seeds, which the Emperor afterwards sows; namely, wheat, rice, millet, and beans. These are brought to the spot in sumptuous boxes, by persons of the most distinguished rank. Having plowed two or three furrows, the whole length of the field, the Emperor quits the plough, and the princes do the same after him; and, after them, the nine presidents, the same. This done, the Emperor sows a little of each of the seeds above-mentioned; and is followed, also, by his suite. Four pieces of cotton-cloth, proper for making dresses, are then distributed to each of the 40 labourers, as presents; and, an equal quantity, to 40 other persons, more advanced in years, spectators of the ceremony: and the whole concludes, with the most active ploughmen present, finishing what the Emperor began.
Agriculture is the principal, and almost the only resource of the Chinese; and they consider it as the first and most honourable of all professions, it being that from which society derives the greatest benefit. The husbandman, in China, enjoys many great privileges, and ranks before the mechanic, or the merchant; and the magistrates, and grandees, are, for the most part, the sons of simple husbandmen, whose merit has raised them to the first dignities of the empire.
The people are permitted to employ part of every crop in brewing beer, and distilling spirits; but if the harvest is a bad one, they are prohibited from this, by an order from administration.
They have an idea that, as the strength, or power of a state, rises from its wealth, and the wealth of a state arises in proportion to its population; the best method of augmenting the number of people, is to extend the cultivation to the utmost. Philosophers have reasoned in the same manner, from the superintendence of Providence, and the universal observation, of Providence keeping up an equilibrium. Turn five or six couple of rats into a barn, with a scarcity of corn, and they will not breed in the same proportion as they would do, if that barn was better stocked with grain: Providence never sending mouths, where there is no meat. So one man and one woman might have 20 children; but, in land where provisions are not raised in an adequate proportion to such an increase in the species, men do not multiply as they otherwise would. In Switzerland, and in China, where they cultivate the hills to their tops, the lands swarm with inhabitants. In the former, the country is so full, that they are enabled to lend out their soldiers to other countries; and in China, where there is greater extent of territory, but not more than four times as large as Great-Britain, there are more than 20 times as many inhabitants. The people of England, whether from this way of reasoning or not, are now inclosing their wastes, cutting canals, and thus extending not only commerce, but cultivation; and there is little doubt, but if they go on in the same manner, that in another century, the number of inhabitants will be doubled, and the people then living, from an increase of national wealth, will find themselves free from any internal debt.—This is a prophecy of mine, which I leave to the world; and which I trust, on the
data
here laid down, will be fulfilled.—But to return to the agriculture of the Chinese.
The country, as I have observed, like others, has its plains and its mountains: but all the plains are cultivated; neither hedge nor ditch is to be seen, and but few trees; so covetous are they of their ground. Provinces in the north, and north-west, produce bread, corn, barley, millet, tobacco, peas that are always green; black and yellow peas, which they give to horses instead of oats, and some rice. Those of the south produce more rice, because the land is low and watry. In provinces where the plains are mingled with mountains, some of them must needs be barren; but the greatest part have good soil, and they cultivate them to the very edge of the precipices.
It is a delightful prospect to see, in some places, plains, to the extent of three or four leagues, surrounded with hills and mountains, cut into terraces from the bottom to the top, each terrace rising one above another, sometimes, to the number of 20 or 30; every one being three or four feet high. These mountains are not, in general, rocky, as in Europe; the soil being light and porous, and easily cut; and so deep in several provinces, that one may dig three or four feet before the rock appears. Where the mountains are rocky, the Chinese loosen the stones, and make little walls of them, to support the terraces; then level the good soil, and sow it with grain.
Husbandmen divide into plots, that which is of the same level; and that which has greater inequalities, is separated into stories, in the form of an amphitheatre; and, as the rice will not flourish without water, they sink reservoirs, at proper distances, to catch the rainwater descending from the mountains; never complaining of the pains and labour they take, either in conducting the water according to its natural bent, from the reservoirs above to those below; or from the lower ones to the higher, by hydraulic machines that raise the water; so that the husbandmen is almost certain to reap a harvest proportionable to his industry and his labour; and the traveller receives a deal of pleasure, in passing through these delightful fields and vallies, wherein the scenes are agreeably diversified by the different disposition of the mountains that surround them; and finds himself, every hour, pleasantly surprised by a new landscape, that perpetually appears in view, in a constant succession of verdant amphitheatres, which open to his eye, one after another, in his journey.
The Chinese have no meadows, national or artificial; and have not the least conception of fallowing; never permitting their lands to lie the smallest time idle. They would consider meadows, as lands in a state of nature. All their land, such as an English farmer would lay down in meadow, they sow with grain; affirming, that a crop of wheat, or barley, will yield as much straw for the nourishment of cattle, as it would have produced hay, besides the additional grain for the maintenance of man; but of which, in plentiful seasons, they spare some for the animal creation. Such is the system, from one end of the empire to the other, confirmed by the experience of 4,000 years, amongst a people the most attentive to their interest, of any nation in the universe.
Without meadows, they breed and maintain a great number of horses, buffaloes, and other animals, necessary for labour, for sustenance, and manure. These are fed, some with straw, others with roots, beans, and grain of every kind. It is true, they have fewer horses, and horned cattle, in proportion, than we have; yet they do not find it necessary to have more.
In their rice countries, the soil is so light, that they plough with a single buffalo, or heifer. After ploughing, they clean the land from weeds, and, if it is to be sown with rice, let in the water, and moisten the earth, till it is quite a pulp, or hotch-potch. The rice is first sowed in little beds, or plots, and, when six or eight inches high, transplanted into the fields; when the ground is tilled, in rows, as we do our beans. These plantations they continually supply with water, till the rice ripens; then, the water being dried up, it is cut and threshed, often in the field where it grows. Rice has an ear the most like bearded barley of any European grain, and grows usually four feet, sometimes six feet high.
In order to make rice grow the better, in places where they sow it, they bury balls of hog's hair, or any other hair, even human hair; and those whose business it is to shave the men, are very careful in saving the hair they shave off; for they sell it to the farmers of these low countries, at a halfpenny, English, per pound. It is conveyed in bags, and barks are often loaded with this, and nothing else.
For wheat and barley, they grub up the grass and roots, and having burnt all together with straw, and sifted the earth fine, they sow it with seed, in drills, as some of our farmers do. Rice-land requires no dressing. Water is sufficient: and, for other grain, they use ashes, and all sorts of dung, even human dung.
The mountains, and vast forests of China, abound with wild animals of every species, such as the rhinoceros, elephants, serpents, tygers, bears, wolves, foxes, buffaloes, camels, horses, wild mules, &c. but no lions; some beavers, sables, and ermines, are met with in the northern provinces, but much inferior to those caught in Siberia.
A kind of tyger is seen in China, which has a body like a dog, but no tail; he is remarkably swift and ferocious. If any one meets this animal, and to escape from his fury, climbs up a tree, he immediately sends forth a loud yell, and several others join him, who, all together, dig up the earth round the roots of such tree, and overturn it. But the Chinese have lately found out a method of destroying them: a certain number of people assemble towards evening, and raise a circle of strong pales, in which they shut themselves up; then, imitating the yell of the animal, they draw all those in the neighbourhood round them, and, whilst these ferocious beasts are digging up the earth, to overturn the pallisade, the men within dispatch them with their bows and arrows.
Camels are found in the north-east part of China, both wild and domestic. They have a species of camel, no larger than a horse, with two bunches on his back, having a head like a sheep, a long neck, and hanging ears; he chews the cud, endures cold without pain, sheds his hair, and becomes quite naked in summer: he can bear a burthen of 3,000 Chinese pounds in weight, and can travel 50 English miles a-day. By natural instinct, he foresees an approaching storm, and discovers springs in the earth. By digging where a camel beats with his foot, one is certain of finding water below; and, when camels flock together with loud cries, and bury their noses in the sand, it is a sure sign the wind is about to blow; of course, they seem ordained for travelling the sandy desarts. There are others that, from their swiftness, can travel 200 miles a-day.
China abounds in several species of apes, some equal in height to a common-sized man; they walk on their hind legs, and all their actions have a similar conformity to ours.
But the most beautiful quadruped they have, is a stag, about the size of a common dog, which are bought at a very great price, and kept as curiosities. They have, also, stags of an enormous size, called horse-stags. But their musk-deer is, of all animals, that which they most pride themselves in, being met with no where else. It is here very common, has no horns, and its hair almost black. The bag which contains its musk, is formed of a very thin membrane, covered with soft hair. The flesh is served up at the most delicate tables. This animal lives on the flesh of serpents; which, though of an enormous size, they find no difficulty in killing: for a serpent, at a certain distance, is immediately overcome by the effluvia of its musk, and rendered senseless and immoveable. The peasants, convinced of this, when they go into the mountains for coals or wood, take a little of this musk with them, as the best preservative against serpents; for, should they lie down to sleep, no serpent can approach them.
In the forests of Chinese Tartary, there are flying foxes, and flying rats, similar to the flying squirrels I have described in Tartary. But a much more extraordinary rat, called the
Fen-chou,
is found upon the coasts of the northern sea, which is almost always frozen. This animal is formed like a rat, but as large as an elephant. It dwells in obscure caverns, and carefully shuns the light. The ivory it produces, is as white as that of the elephant. Another kind, of a less size, but as large as a buffalo, burrows in the earth like a mole, flies from the light, and remains almost always shut up in subterranean retreats.—The account I have given of these rats, is extracted from a printed collection of Observations, written by the celebrated Emperor
Kang-hi.
Chinese horses have neither the strength, the beauty, nor the swiftness of ours; and the inhabitants have not the art of breaking them in properly. They castrate them, to make them gentle; but they are so timid, that they will fly at the neighing of a Tartar horse; besides, as they are not shod, their hoofs are soon gone, and they are useless.
Game is so common, that the squares, or markets, of Peking, in winter-time, are supplied with different heaps of wild fowl, and animals of the chace, frozen stiff, and thus perfectly secure against all putrefaction. Prodigious quantities of deer, elks, stags, wild boars, goats, foxes, rabbits, cats, squirrels, and wild rats; geese, ducks, partridges, pheasants, and quails, are seen there, with several other kinds of game, not to be met with in Europe.
China has birds of every kind, and every species, and parrots inferior to none, either in the variety, or beauty of their plumage, or in the facility of learning to talk. But the most beautiful bird of China, is the pheasant, many of which have been brought to England. It is called the
Kin-ki,
or golden fowl. Its body is proportioned with wonderful elegance, and the brilliancy of its plumage, seems to be the utmost effort of the pencil of Nature. The shades of its wings and tail, are a mixture of bright red and yellow, and a beautiful plume waves over its head. Its flesh is more delicate than that of our pheasants.
Their manner of catching water-fowl in China, as well as in India, is very curious. When the fowler spies his game, he wades into the water, as high as his chin, covering his head with a pot full of holes, to give him air and sight. This pot is covered over with feathers, to deceive the game; so that, when he draws near them, by either swimming or walking, they are not in the least frightened. The fowler then lays hold of them by the feet, draws them down under water, and the rest of the fowls thinking their companions have only dived, are not in the least disturbed, but keep swimming about the place, till most of them are taken in the same manner.
The butterflies found in the province of Canton, are so much prized as to be sent to court. They are larger than any European ones, and their wings much broader. They begin to flutter about in the evening, like bats; and seem nearly as large, in the extent of their wings. Their colours are wonderfully variegated, and have an extraordinary brilliancy.
As to insects; they have, at times, such swarms of locusts, as to become a plague, and destroy the fruits of the earth. One sees, says a Chinese author, such prodigious multitudes of them, that they darken the sky, and are so close, that their wings seem to touch each other. Their numbers are so great, that, on lifting up your eyes, you would imagine you saw, over your head, high, green mountains; and the noise they make, in flying, is like the beating of a drum.
The same author observes, that this incredible quantity of locusts never appears, but when great floods are followed by a very dry year; it being his opinion, that the spawn of fish left on the ground, and afterwards hatched by the heat of the sun, produces this vast multitude of insects, which, in a short time, destroys the hopes of a plentiful crop.
With respect to fish, they have the greater part of such as have been seen in Europe. But they have one, which they call
Tcho-kio-yu,
or the fish in armour; because, its body is defended by sharp scales, ranged in straight lines, and laid one over the other, like tiles on a roof. Its flesh is white, and tastes like veal; and it generally weighs 40 pounds. The gold and silver fish we have in England, are originally from China.
The missionaries speak of another fish, the figure of which is as singular, as it is frightful and disgusting. It is called
Hai seng,
and generally makes a dish at every entertainment. It is usually seen floating, and looks like a shapeless lump of inanimate matter; it has neither mouth nor bones, and dies on being pressed: but the most singular of all Chinese fishes, is the
Pimou-yu.
This appears to be but half a fish, being flat, like the sole of a shoe, having but one eye, and one of its sides without any scales, or fins. This fish cannot swim, but when it unites itself to a companion; and the two fishes, joined, appear to be but one.
They have, also, a salt-water fish, with a round head, and its mouth like the beak of a falcon. It has eight legs round its head, but has neither scales, tail, nor bone.
Monkden,
in his
Geography,
says, it has two tufts of a beard, which resemble two bunches of cord; and that, during a storm, or when the waves of the sea are too much agitated, it extends this beard, using it as cords to attach itself to the bottom of the sea, or to the rocks. The name
Niomeré,
which the Mantchew Tartars give it, implies,
a moored bark.
Great numbers of whales are met with here, every year, towards the north-east, on the coasts of Korea; and, in many of their bodies, are found darts and harpoons, of the French and Dutch, from whom they have escaped in the northern extremities of Europe; which seems to indicate the existence of a passage from thence into those seas, to the north of America.
The Chinese, fertile in contrivance, have two methods of fishing, which are curious. The one is practised in the night, by moon-shine. They take two long, straight boats, and nail a board, about two feet broad, painted white, and varnished on the sides, from one end of each boat to the other: this plank slopes outwards, and almost touches the surface of the water. In order to catch fish, they turn the face of this plank towards the moon, that its reflection may add to the brightness of the board; when the fish playing, and mistaking the colour of the board for that of the water, leap up to it, and often fall upon it, or into the boat; so that fishermen almost, without pains, fill a small bark with fish, in a very little time.
The other method is more surprising. As Europeans, and others, train up hawks to fly at game, and catch birds, the Chinese train up cormorants to catch fish. One fisherman can easily look after a hundred of these birds. He keeps them perched on the sides of his boat, waiting patiently for orders, till they reach the place where he means to fish; and then, at the first signal, each takes its flight, and flies the way assigned it. It is pleasant to see them divide among them, the whole breadth of the river, or the lake. They seek up and down, swim, dive, come up again, and hover over the water, till they perceive their prey; when they instantly dart upon it, seize it with their beak, and bring it to their master. When the fish is too big, they help one another; one taking it by the tail, and another by the head, and so carry it to the boat, where the men hold out long oars, or strong canes, for them to perch on; nor will they quit the fish, till they are sent in search of others, which they will repeat 100 times. When they are weary, the fishermen suffer them to rest, but give them nothing to eat till the fishing is over; during which employ, the throat of each cormorant is tied with a small cord, lest they should swallow the small fish, and prevent their having any inclination to return. But when the fishing is over, they untie the cord, and let them fill their bellies.
In the province of Quang-tong, a prodigious number of tame ducks are raised, by hatching their eggs in ovens, and dung-hills; but it does not appear that they derived this custom from Egypt. They load a great number of small barks with them, and carry them, in flocks, to feed on the sea-shore, where, at low water, these birds find shrimps, oysters, and other kinds of shell-fish. These small fleets generally sail in company, and the ducks soon mix together on the shore; but, when night approaches, they are collected together, by only beating on a bason, as swarms of bees are collected. At this noise, they immediately form themselves into different flocks, and each returns to the vessel it belongs to.
Such flocks of ducks are thus rendered useful on the rice-grounds; and the master of a flock, like the owner of a stock of sheep in England, shall be paid for the service they do to the land. At certain periods in the growth of rice, it is necessary to clear the ground of vermin. The master of such a flock of ducks is applied to, and he will conduct his whole flock into the rice-ground he is employed to clear; where they will, in a few hours, devour all the frogs and insects as would injure the crop; and he then, by a call, or whistle, takes them back to his boat. Such boats as are employed for this purpose, are flat-bottomed, and have three or four apartments, above each other; on the uppermost, the ducks hatch their eggs; on the lower, they sit with their brood. The drake, at the call of a whistle, drives the young ones into the water, and goes before them, to shew them the way. A piece of board is fastened to the side, which serves as a bridge for the ducklings to go out and in by; and the old ducks are so well trained, that, on the master of the boat winding a whistle, the whole flock will follow him. On their return from the grounds, the old ducks divide into two parts; one guards the side, lest any strange duck should enter with their own tribe; the other guards the rear, to see that none is left behind: and, when all are embarked, the old guardians enter, and take their proper posts.
CHAP. IV.
Of the People, Cities, Towns and Gardens, of China.
CHINA abounds in great cities; a traveller no sooner has left one, but he enters another; there are reckoned to be 4402 that are walled in, which are divided into three classes, as to size; of the first are 160, many of which are three or four leagues in circumference. In the provinces of Xen-si, and Xang-si, their villages are surrounded with walls and ditches, and have iron-gates which are shut every night, and guarded in the day-time by the country people, as well against the insults of the soldiers, as the depredations of robbers.
The cities are divided into two classes, civil and military: the first contains 2045, the rest 2357, and these are sub-divided into classes, according to their size. Soldiers are quartered in some of the military ones, and a certain quantity of land assigned them in the neighbourhood for their support. The frontiers, and sea-coasts, are defended by 439 castles, well fortified, and kept in order. Along the same coasts are 2920 towns, many of which are equal in extent, and population, to several of the walled cities; and as to the towns and villages, in the interior part of the country, they are almost innumerable, and the greater part of them are rich, commercial and populous.
The public institutions correspond with the extent of the empire. There are 1145 royal lodging-places for the use of the mandarines, governors of provinces, officers of the court, and couriers that travel at the expence of the crown. The towers, triumphial arches, and other monuments erected in honour of good kings, or illustrious heroes, are in number 1159. The virtues of women being equally here renowned as those of men, 208 monuments are to be seen consecrated to the memory of as many females, who by their modesty, virtue, and attention to the duties of their sex, have merited the esteem and veneration of their fellow-citizens. Two hundred and twenty celebrated libraries are constantly open to the
literati,
and men of genius; and the schools, or colleges, established by
Confucius
and others, founded in honour of him, are multiplied as much as cities and towns.
Every principal city has a palace for the viceroy, governor, or mandarin; a public lodging place, or inn, for those who travel on the king's account; and every metropolis has a stately, high tower, nine stories high, and another of seven, erected chiefly for ornament; being to be seen at a great distance, and from their tops, affording an extensive prospect of the adjacent country.
Du Halde
mentions some of these, 12 or 13 stories high, every one lessening the over other, with surprising symmetry, and all adorned with fine painting, carving, gilding, and also, with bells round the top of the upper story, hung by a chain so long, that the least wind sets them a tinkling, the musick of which when it blows hard is uncouth, yet not disagreeable. These towers are similar to the porcelain towers at Nanking, a model of which is erected in Kew-gardens near London.
The cities are generally square, or an oblong square, with great, high walls, towers, &c. and one or more stately gate at each front; two great streets which cross one another in the middle of the town, divided in four quarters, and the gates stand due east and west; the other streets run in a direct line, from one to its opposite and are intersected with lanes, running parallel to each other, and adorned with spacious piazzas, temples, and other public buildings. Other cities are perfectly round, others oval, but within, of the same uniform symmetry; the far greatest part of them are well supplied with water from rivers, or artificial canals, which run through them, branching into the principal parts of the town, and furnishing fountains, cascades, &c. in streets, houses, gardens, &c.
The buildings they bestow most on, and are whimsically extravagant in, are their temples, which they rear to a considerable height, adorned with every thing curious, and filled with an incredible number of idols, before which hang lamps continually burning: they reckon about 480 of these temples, of the first rank, besides a prodigious number of others, which are served in the whole with 350,000 bonzas, or priests. Of bridges there are a vast; number one of the most celebrated, is that over the river
Saffrang,
which joins two mountains together, and is 400 cubits long, and 500 high, and all of one single arch, whence travellers call it the flying bridge There is another at the city of Chang-chew, at the place where the two great rivers of Kiang and Kan meet. This is built upon 130 barges, chained to one another, yet, so as to open a way in any part of it, to let vessels pass. There are many such bridges over the country. A third sort is built on pillars without any arch, some of considerable length and breadth, particularly that in the province of Fo-kien, which stands on 300 pillars, and is 660 perches long, and one and a half broad, curiously built, and adorned with parapets, and great variety of sculpture and imagery. Others are built with arches as with us, but of great length, breadth, and beauty: that at Oxu the capital of Fo-kien, consists of 100 arches, and above 150 fathoms in length.
Their triumphal arches consist of three great arches, made of marble, the middle arch higher then the other two, supported by four columns, sometimes round, but oftener square, of one single stone; the frieze is adorned with inscriptions, beautiful figures, and sculpture, with knots and flowers finely carved, and birds flying as it were from the stone.
Le Comte
considers these as their master-pieces in architecture.
Having described the cities in general, I will give my readers a description of the three principal ones, Peking, Nanking, and Canton, which will enable him to form a good idea of the rest.
Peking is the metropolis of the empire, and where the court is held; it is situated in about the fortieth degree of north latitude in a very fertile plain, 20 leagues from the great wall.
Amiot,
who was at Peking, in 1777, speaks thus of the climate. "From many experiments that I made, I am convinced that the water, air, and earth, for the space of seven, or eight, leagues round, equally abound with nitre. In this year there was a longer continuance of hot weather, then was generally observed before. In the months of June and July,
Reaumur
's thermometer, continually rose from the 26th, to the 33d degree above Zero; and on the third of July, the thermometer rose at three in the afternoon, to 34 degrees. Ice, at this time of the year, when first taken from the ice-house, dissolves with difficulty, and is transported from place to place, during the greatest heats of summer, in open wheel-barrows, with as little precaution as if it were flints or bricks, and leaves no other traces behind on the sand, then a few drops that fall here and there, which convinces me, that the ice being so long in dissolving, is owing to its being impregnated with so great a number of nitrous particles; which preserves it along time in a state of congelation. A number of people at this, and other seasons, are employed by the Emperor to give fresh water,
gratis,
to all who ask for it.
Every kind of water at Peking, whether taken from springs or rivers, has a very singular quality; it leaves a kind of tartar in those vessels in which it has been kept, and in those in which it has been boiled. That the air at Peking, is impregnated with nitre, appears from the following reasons. 1. Notwithstanding the variety of unwholesome food which the people eat, and all the filth, and inconvenience resulting from low, damp, and confined lodgings, the plague never makes its appearance in the province of Petcheli, and the people are seldom attacked by any of those epidemical disorders, so common in Europe. 2. Provisions may be kept a long time at Peking without being subject to putrefaction. Raisins are eaten there fresh 'till May; apples and pears 'till Midsummer; wild-boars, stags, deer, roebucks, rabbits, hares, pheasants, ducks, geese, and all kind of game, brought from Tartary to Peking, in the winter, will keep without salt for two or three months, tho' they are exposed every day in the markets, and carried about from their houses to the market and back, 'till they are sold; nay, this may be done 'till the end of March. 3. Whole fields in the neighbouring of Peking, may be seen covered with a nitrous salt, every morning at sun-rise. 4. The earth is frozen in winter, to the depth of two or three feet, and does not become soft before the end of March. This is the reason, that the frost will kill plants at Peking, which
Linnaeus
raised in Sweden, tho' 20 degrees further to the north.
OLD CITY.
A Wall of the City
B The Nine
C Streets of the City
D 1 First Enclosure of the
D 2 Second Enclosure
D 3 Third Enclosure where the Emperor resides
E Principal Gate of the City
F First Street on entering the City
G Palace encompassed with a Marble Bal
rade
H Second Street with two Triumphal Arches
I Street of Repose
1 First Apertiment
2 Second Apertiment West
3 Third called Portal of the beginning
4 Second Enclosure
5 Supreme Portal
6 Supreme Imperial Hall
7 Hall
exalted
8 Supreme Hall in the Middle
9 Hall of Sovereign Concord
10 Portal of Heaven
11 Mansion of Heaven
12 The beautiful House
13 The House which receives Heaven
14 Courts & Gardens
15 The last of the Inner Enclosure
16 High raised Portal with a place to manage Horses
17 Park & artificial Mountains
18 Consisting of Three Houses
19 North Portal
20 Portal of repose
1 to 20 Places belonging to the Emperor
K First Palace
L Second Palace
M Palace upon the Lake
N Palace upon a Mountain
O Palace near the Lake
P Palace Do
Q Palace
R Palace of the Fortress
S Temple of the 4 within the Palace
T Temple
V Temple
X Temple
Y Places for the Mandarines
Z Five Temples in the New City marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
a Temple in the Old City
b Do —Do
c Six Tribunals marked 123456
d The five Tribunals of the Military Mandarines
Plan of the
CITY of PEKIN
the Metropolis of
CHINA.
NEW CITY
Imperial Throne in the centre of the Palace raised on 5 Bases of White Marble
The height, and enormous thickness of the walls of the old Tartar city, excite admiration; they hide the whole town by their height, and are so thick, that 12 horsemen may readily ride on them abreast. They have spacious, square towers raised on them, about a bow-shot distant from each other, and large enough to contain bodies of reserve, in case of necessity.
The city has four gates, lofty and well arched, that at a distance make a great shew. Over them are large pavilion-roofed towers, divided into nine stories, each having several port holes. The lower story forms a large hall for the use of the soldiers, and others who quit guard and those appointed to relieve them, and before each gate is a space of more than 360 feet, large enough for 500 men to be drawn up; a kind of redoubt surrounded by a semi-circular wall, equal in thickness and height, to the city-walls. The arches, or gate-ways, are built of marble, but the rest of the walls of brick. The great road which ends here, is commanded by a pavilion-roofed tower, like the gates, so that as the cannon of the former can batter the houses of the city, those of the latter can sweep the adjacent country. The Chinese city is, also, walled round, and has seven gates, and a large suburb at every gate.
The streets of Peking, are straight, and a league in length, the principal of them, 120 feet wide, and bordered with shops. Those in which they sell silks and china-ware, generally take up the whole street, and make a very pleasing appearance, and that which renders it more so, is the custom tradesmen have, of fixing up a long board in front of their shops, about 20 feet high, painted and gilt, on which are written the names of the goods they sell. These being placed on each side of the street, almost at equal distances, in most of the cities in China, and having pendants, and streamers on the top, make a very agreeable shew. They have no signs, but the name of every tradesman, is written in large letters over his door. Was it not for this, the streets would look mean, notwithstanding their length and breadth, the houses being so low and mean in front.
All the great streets are drawn by a line from one gate to another, and have several
corps de garde.
Night and day, the soldiers with their swords, by their sides, and whips in their hands, are ready to correct those who make any disturbance, and they are authorised to take into custody such as resist, or create any quarrels.
The little streets that open into the greater, have lattice-gates at the end, which does not prevent seeing all that pass along, and these are guarded also. The lattice-gates are shut at night, and are seldom opened but to persons known, who carry a lanthorn in their hand, and who give a good reason for coming out, such as fetching a physician, &c. In all Chinese cities, there are very large bells; at Peking, there are seven, one, according to
Magaillans,
weighs 120,000
lb.
is 13½ feet in diameter, and 42 round, and 12½ high, besides the ear which is three feet more. Tho' they exceed ours in size, they are inferior in sound, having wooden clappers on the outside, in form of mallets, that make but a dull noise. These bells are almost in form of a cylinder, near as wide at top as at bottom; but their thickness lessens gradually from the bottom to the top; the metal is brittle, ill cast, and full of knots; but its sound which is prodigiously loud, and strong, has a most awful effect in the night, by its reverberating round the walls, and by the echo of the surrounding country; one of these bells is admired for the beautiful characters with which it is covered, being as neat, and perfect, as if traced out by the finest writer, or formed of wax, by a stamp.
Rougement
tells us, that two of these bells were raised to the top of a tower, 130 French feet high by 200 men, only, under the direction of
Verbiest,
a missionary, to the great astonishment of the Chinese, who imagined it would require several thousand men, and that two years afterwards he raised another, with only 120 young men. By a stroke on these bells the five watches of the night are distinguished; on the commencement of the first, they give one stroke, which is repeated every minute, for two hours, 'till the second watch; they then give two strokes, repeating them at certain intervals, 'till the third watch, and so on, increasing the number of strokes, according to the watch. The bells are hung in towers built for that pupose, and begin to sound at seven, or eight in the evening. They make use of enormous drums for the same purpose, 40 feet in circumference.
As soon as the first stroke is given by the watch, on the bells, a soldier, or two, comes and goes from one
corps de garde,
to the other, and as they pass, they play continually on a sort of rattle. They do not suffer any person to go about at night, and examine even those who are sent on the Emperor's business; if their answers are equivocal, they take them to the guard-house, where the person commanding must answer every call of the centinel on duty. By this beautiful order, which is observed with the greatest strictness, peace, silence and safety, reigns throughout the city. The governor is obliged to walk round the towers, and often comes when he is least expected; and the officers on guard at the walls, and at the gates, where they beat the watches on great drums of brass, send subalterns to examine their respective quarters; the least neglect is punished the next day, and the officer broken.
This exact discipline, which prevents all nocturnal assemblies, will no doubt appear very extraordinary with us, and will not please our persons of fashion; but is it not the duty of the chief persons of a state, to prefer good order, and public safety, to diversions and amusement, which give rise to a variety of attempts against the property and lives of the inhabitants? Nothing appears more agreeable to reason, since the Tartars, a people without learning, lately come from the midst of woods, and forests, not enlightened by christianity, are governed by these principles, and by this prudent vigilance cut off the root of the many crimes, which are but too common in states, not so well regulated.
This regulation is expensive to the state, for part of the soldiers are kept entirely to take care of the streets; they are called infantry, and their pay is large; besides their watching, night and day, it is their duty to see that every person cleans before his own house, that the streets are swept every day, and watered night and morning in dry weather, and the dirt taken away after rain: and as the streets are wide, it is their duty, also, to keep the middle of the street clean themselves, for the covenience of passengers. As the town is not paved, when the dirt is removed, they level it, or dry it, after it has been turned and mixed with other earth; so that two hours after rain, every one may walk clean in all parts.
But if the streets are kept so quiet at night, there is noise enough in the day; it is astonishing to see the immense concourse of people that fill them, and the confusion caused by the prodigious number of horses, mules, asses, camels, carts, waggons, and chairs, which cross and meet each other, without reckoning the crowds of one or two hundred men, in different parts of the streets, listening to fortune-tellers, jugglers, masters of infinite dexterity, ballad-singers, and a thousand mountebanks, and buffoons, who read and relate stories to promote laughter, and distribute medicines, the wonderful effects of which they display with all the eloquence peculiar to them,—I say crowds of men, for not a woman is seen in the streets.
As all the riches, and merchandize, of the empire are continually pouring into this city; the number of strangers that resort here, is immense. They are carried in chairs, or ride on horseback, chiefly the latter; but they are always attended by a guide acquainted with the streets, and who knows the houses of the nobility, and principal people; they are also, provided with a book containing an account of the different quarters, squares, remarkable places, and residence of public officers. In summer-time, temporary shops are built in the streets which add to the confusion, where persons are served with ice-water; and every where we find eating-houses, and places of refreshment for tea, and fruits: hackney horses, and chairs, are always at hand, for there are no coaches, and for 12, or 15 pence a horse, or mule, may be hired for the whole day. From the continual croud in the streets, the owner of such horse, leads his beast by the bridle, to make way.
Added to all this, people of distinction oblige all their dependants to follow them. A mandarin of the first rank, is always accompanied in his walks by his whole tribunal, and to augment his equipages, each of the inferior mandarins in his suite, is generally attended by several domestics. The nobility of the court, and princes of the blood, never appear in public without being surrounded by a large body of cavalry, and as their attendance is required at the palace every day, their train alone is sufficient to crowd the city, and create confusion. It is very singular as I have observed, that in all this prodigious concourse no women are ever seen; hence we may judge of the population of China, as the number of females here, as well as every where else, is greater than that of the other sex.
Another addition to the general crowd, is that but few artificers, such as smiths, taylors, carpenters, &c. work but in the houses of their employers, and of course are all day about the streets seeking for employment. Multitudes of country people resort here daily to market, and no river coming up close to the city, all manner of goods are brought to Peking, by land-carriage, which fills the streets with waggons, beasts of burden, and their drivers, insomuch, that, morning and evening, the gates are so thronged, that a man may wait some hours before he can go by; and yet in all this bustle, very few accidents happen; the police is so judicious, as to keep all quiet. The city is divided into four quarters and these four into lesser divsions; every ten houses has an officer like our constable, who presides over the other nine, and informs the magisrate if any thing happens. And, the governor of Peking, has jurisdiction not only over the soldiers, but over all the citizens, and every thing that relates to the civil government, and the public security. If any robbery is committed in the night, the neighbourhood is obliged to make it good, and in every family the master is accountable for his children, and his servants. The streets are patrolled at night by the foot-guards, and the horse go their rounds upon the walls.
An immense number of barbers are perpetually walking the streets, with a kind of little bell, to give notice of their approach, to such as want their service. They carry on their shoulders, a stool, a bason, a kettle and fire, with a towel and comb-case, and will, when called, shave the head in an instant, either in the street, porch, or the middle of a square. These men shave, set the eyebrows in order, clean the ears with proper instruments, stretch out the arms, rub the shoulders, and do all this for the value of three farthings English, which they receive very gratefully, and then ring their bell for other customers.
In short, there is scarce any invention to which the Chinese have not recourse, to find means of subsistence, for as there is not a spot in the empire that lies untilled, so there is not a person, man or woman, tho' never so old, deaf or blind, but what may gain a livelihood. A great many families in Peking, gain a living by selling matches, others have no other business, but picking up, in the streets, little rags of silk, woollen, cotton or linen, and the feathers of fowls, bones of dogs, and bits of paper, which they wash and sell again.
Strict watch is kept in the day-time here, and in every city, to observe those who enter; for this purpose, a strong guard is placed at every gate. The air, the looks, &c. of all passengers are carefully examined, and if their appearance is doubtful, they are carried before a mandarin. This is to prevent the entry of foreigners amongst them, for being bigotted to their ancient usages; they suppose that by the admission of foreigners, an alteration of manners, customs, and ceremonies, might in process of time, result from such an intercourse, and give birth to quarrels, party-disputes, and sedition, and at last, end in an overthrow of the constitution.
None but military people are permitted to wear arms▪ in public, and these only, in time of war, guard, or review, of course little mischief is done, by occasional quarrels. If two men quarrelling, have sticks in their hands, they will lay them aside, and fight the matter out with their fists; but they oftener go before a mandarin and beg him to settle it. He hears the case with great gravity, and according to the merits of it, orders the aggressor, or both of them, to receive a sound bastinadoing. Prostitutes are not suffered to remain within the walls of any city; but they may reside in the suburbs, provided they do not keep a house of their own. Certain persons are authorised to lodge them, but those persons must watch their conduct, and is responsible and punishable for any noise or quarrel in his house.
Every city of China, and sometimes, even an ordinary town, enjoys the advantages of an establishment lately introduced into Paris. This is an office called
Tong-pou,
where money may be borrowed upon pledges. No preliminaries are necessary, the transaction is an inviolable secret, and the borrower may remain unknown. Those who belong to the office, take only a description of the borrower, or his person, so as to be able to give an account of what they do to the Police. If he borrows a sum seemingly too large for his situation in life, these office-keepers will set a person to follow him home. But, unless connivance is proved, the office never sustains a loss. The usual interest of money is 30
per cent.;
and, at this rate, money may be borrowed of the Tong-pou.
However industrious and temperate these people are, the prodigious number of inhabitants in populous cities, occasions a great deal of misery. Some of the cities are so poor, that they cannot supply their inhabitants with the common necessaries of life; for which reason, they expose their children often in the streets, especially when mothers fall sick, or want milk to suckle them. Thus are these little innocents, in some sense, condemned to death, as soon as they begin to live. This is common in great cities, such as Canton and Peking; but, in other places, such instances are few; and government so far winks at it, as to employ as much vigilance in carrying them away in the morning, as it bestows on their education, which encourages the practice. This has inclined the missionaries, in populous places, to educate several catechists, who divide the whole city, and walk out every morning to baptise a multitude of dying children; and have prevailed on many of the infidel-midwives to permit christian women to follow them to the houses they are called to; for it sometimes happens, that a Chinese, not being in a condition to bring up a large family, shall engage the midwife, to stifle a female infant in a bason of water, as soon as born; on which occasions, these christian midwives take care to baptize them first. Poor families will also, when their infants die, lay them in the roads and streets, or throw them in the river, to save the expence of burying them. It is the same misery that produces a vast number of slaves, or rather persons who sell themselves to their employers. A man will sometimes sell his son, and sometimes himself and wife, at a very moderate price; but, if he can, he is contented to sell his children only.
The Emperor's palace stands in the middle of the Tartar city, is an oblong square, two miles in length, and one in breadth, and an assemblage of vast buildings, extensive courts, and magnificent gardens, shup up, on all sides, by a double wall: the space between the two walls, occupied by houses belonging to the officers of the court, eunuchs, and different tribunals, some of whom have the care of providing necessaries for the Emperor's use, and some for determining disputes, and punishing faults committed by the domestics of the palace.
Within the inner wall are nine, vast courts, and the arched ways through which one enters them, are erected with marble, and have each a large, square, Gothic building over them. The offices on each side the courts are but mean. The Emperor's apartment, which is at the end of the furthest court, is built on a square platform raised with earth, and cased with marble, and consists, like all other Chinese houses, of one story, the roof of which is supported by large, marble columns, and covered with glazed, yellow tiles, that glitter in the sun, like gold. The white marble steps, by which these state-rooms are ascended, the carved-work, varnish, painting, and gilding, with which they are adorned, give them a very magnificent appearance, and suitable to the grandeur of that monarch to whom they belong; but still as
Le Comte
observes, there is not that contrivance and uniformity, in which the beauty of our buildings consists, and of course, the irregularity of the whole must offend the eye of any one skilled in architecture.
The inner palace-court, at the end of which this platform is raised, is, 350 feet in length, and 50 broad; an immense gallery runs round it, in which are magazines, containing rich effects, the Emperor's private property; for the public treasury is entrusted to a sovereign tribunal. One of these magazines is filled with plate; another, with rich furs; a third, with dresses lined with valuable furs, which the Emperor sometimes gives, in presents to his officers. A fourth, is a depository of jewels, pieces of curious marble, and pearls, fished up in Tartary; a fifth is full of wardrobes, and trunks of silk stuffs used by the Emperor, and his family, and the rest are filled with bows and arrows, and other armour, taken from the enemy, or presented by princes.
The platform, on which the Emperor's apartments are built is 15 feet high, with a balustrade
ound it of white marble, and the apartments, being in the center, leave a broad terrace paved with marble round them.
The hall of audience is in the middle front of these apartments, 130 feet square, the cieling is carved-work, japanned green, and charged with gilded dragons, the pillars within that support the roof, are seven feet in circumference at bottom, encrusted with a kind of paste, and japanned with red; the pavement-floor is covered with an ordinary carpet imitating the Turkey, and the walls are whited, but destitute of ornament.
The throne stands in the middle of this hall, and consists of a lofty alcove, very neat, but not magnificent, with the word
Ching
painted over it, which implies
Holy,
in Latin,
Eximius,
or in English, "wisest, or most perfect," On the terrace before the hall, are placed great and massy vessels of brass, in which perfumes are burnt during the time of audience, and candlesticks made in the shape of birds, large enough to hold wax flambeaus, which at this time are lighted. The private apartments I can give no account of, strangers not being permitted to see them, nor any of the natives, but women, and eunuchs: in the gardens of the palace are two great sheets of water, with a marble bridge thrown over them.
The palaces of the royal family are very neat within, extremely capacious, and built at great expence, but in a similar form with the Emperor's; a row of courts, adorned with buildings on the sides, and in front, at the end of the inner court, a hall japanned, and raised on a platform, three or four feet high, railed round, cased with great blocks of hewn stone, and paved with large, square tiles. The tribunals of the sovereign juridictions, are also, of vast extent, but ill built and worse repaired, and no ways adequate to the greatness of the empire.
The seraglio in the court of Peking, contains a collection of the most beautiful virgins in the empire. These the vice-roys, and governors of the several provinces, make the Emperor presents of, who indeed uses them no better than slaves, for they are so numerous, that many of them are scarcely known to him.
The houses of Peking, and even the palaces of the principal mandarins, are built on the surface of the ground, supported with wooden pillars, without any foundation. They are but one story high (except in merchants houses, where they have a second, as a warehouse), and, of course, take up a great extent of ground, having several, open courts within their walls. The people have such a regard to privacy, that no windows are made towards the street, or to look towards their neighbours; and just within their great gate, or portal, stands a wall, or screen, to prevent strangers looking in, when the gate is opened. When you have passed this screen, there are little allies, right and left, by which you pass into the several courts, with buildings round them.
Their rooms are very plain, nothing being studied but usefulness. Those that are opulent, add ornaments of Japan-work, sculpture, and gilding. The greatest part of the houses in cities are covered with tiles; all the roofs of the rooms are supported by pillars, 10 feet high, on stone bases, and beams from one to another; and, the magnificence of them, consists in the thickness of the beams and pillars, the excellency of the timber, and the carving on the gates. They have no other stairs than what are before the door, which are a few steps from the ground; but, along the side of the house, is a close gallery, six or seven feet wide, and cased with beautiful free-stone.
Common houses are built with unburnt brick. In some places, they are made with tempered earth; and, in others, the walls are made with hurdles, covered with lime and earth: but those of the gentry, are made of polished bricks, very curiously carved. In country-towns, the houses are chiefly of earth, very low, and the roofs almost flat, composed of reeds covered with earth.
Their entertainments are made in a sort of hall, or banqueting-house, at the entrance of their houses, and have no other ornament, than a single order of columns, painted and varnished, to support the roof; and the roofs are often open to the tiles, without a cieling. Round this hall are several places, partitioned off, with a table and benches, to hold four persons in each, like our coffee-houses in London; for, let the company be ever so numerous, not more than four at any time dine at one table, and often but one person. The furniture of this hall is merely benches and tables, and some large lanthorns, made of painted silk, suspended from the roof. Their rooms have no looking-glasses, hangings, or fine chairs; and their beds, which are one of their principal ornaments, are scarce ever seen by strangers. Those of the rich, in winter, have curtains of double satin; and, in summer, of white taffety, painted with flowers, birds, and trees, the posts gilt, painted and carved, with worked, satin coverlids. The beds of the common people are made of plain linen, and plain mattrasses, stuffed with cotton; and, in the northern provinces, the poor sleep on benches, built up with bricks, and kept warm by stoves on the outside, like our hot-walls. On these they sleep, some on the bare bricks, some on mattrasses; and, in the day-time, here they sit and work, and dress their food, having little or no furniture.
They always sleep bare-headed; and, tho' their heads are shaven, they have but little covering. Their apartments are damp, being on the ground-floor, and generally between court-yard and garden, they are subject to many disorders, arising from obstructions. A kind of deafness is so common, that a Chinese, in his 40th or 50th year, is seldom free from it; and perhaps it is in consequence of this impediment to sound, that their music pleases them infinitely beyond ours; and they had rather hear a drum, a ring of bells, or the jingling of a few, brass basons, than any concert of European instruments. With those who can afford furniture, it consists of tables, cabinets, screens, chairs, and abundance of porcelain vases; the whole is covered with that beautiful varnish which we cannot imitate, and prettily ornamented with painted figures. The hall is the only place where visitors are received, they being admitted into no other part of the house.
The city of Nanking is the capital of the province of Kiang-Nan, and situated in latitude 32 N. was formerly the residence of the Emperor, and by far the largest and most populous city of all China. A French missionary, lately arrived from that Country, speaks of it as follows. "We arrived at Nanking on the 2d of June, "I was very desirous of seeing that city, which is reckoned to be the largest in the world. The suburbs, through which we passed, are very long, but not populous. The houses stand at some distance from each other, having reeds, pools of water, or plantations of bamboo, between them. We took a view of it from the fifth story of the porcelain tower, which commands an extensive prospect; but it did not appear to us to be above two thirds as large as Paris. We could not reconcile this wi
h the accounts generally given of its immense extent; but next morning explained the matter. We had travelled a full league from Nanking, when we perceived, on a sudden, the walls of a city rising amidst mountains, and appearing as if cemented to the rocks. These were the walls of Nanking, which, leaving the city where it now stands, have, as it were, retired thither to inclose a space of 15 or 16 leagues, 12 or 13 of which are not inhabited.
Nanking has lost much of its ancient splendor. It had formerly a magnificent palace, but no remains of it are left. A third part of the city is deserted, but the rest is well inhabited. Some parts of it are extremely populous, and full of business; the streets are not so broad as those of Peking, but are very beautiful, well paved in the middle, with large, marble slabs, and, on the sides, with variety of pebble and other stones, curiously inlaid and bordered with shops. The breadth and dept of the river, on which the city stands, render its port very commodious, being here two leagues wide; but it is now grown into disuse. Here resides a mandarin, or governor, and the Tartars have a numerous garrison, commanded by a general of their own nation. The city has still, some beautiful gates, some few temples, and that famous, octagon, porcelain tower, of which, I said, there is an exact model in Kew-gardens; it is 200 feet high, and 80 wide at bottom, is in good condition, and has stood near 400 years. It consists of nine, similar stories, lessening in size, as the column rises, so as to form a pyramid. Between each story is a penthouse all round, covered with green, varnished tiles, growing less and less, like the tower itself; and decreasing in breadth, as it increases in heighth. On the top is a cupola, thirty feet higher than the eighth story, with a large golden ball above; and the whole is cased with China-ware, glazed and painted, and so joined, as to seem one piece of China. There is also a bell in Nanking, 11 feet high, and seven in diameter, that weighs 50,000lb.
Of the city and environs of Canton, I shall say a little more, as being the place to which the English go, and of course could receive better information respecting it.
WAMPOO
One begins, says
Premare,
to have an idea of China, on entering the river Canton. Both sides of it present large fields of rice, which resemble green meadows, and extend beyond the reach of sight; they are intersected by an infinite number of small canals, in such manner, that the barks which pass and repass in them, seem, at a distance, to sail along the grass, the water that carries them being concealed from the eye. Farther in land the country appears covered with trees, and cultivated along the vallies, and the whole scene is interspersed with villages, rural seats, and such a variety of delightful prospects, that one is never tired of viewing them, and regrets to be obliged to pass them so quickly.
From the English factory at Canton, to Wampo, where the ships lie, it is about six miles by water, on the river Ta; and in the way there, the eye is delighted, not only with green and fruitful fields, and boats passing and re-passing; but with a number of villages and lofty pagodas and steeples. One of these pagodas is situated close to the river, and is called the half-way-house.
(See the plate of Wampo.)
The city is entered by seven, iron gates, within each of which is a guard-house. No European is allowed to enter there, if known. The soldiers that keep guard, are armed with spears, darts, swords, and match-lock guns; but most of them with bows and arrows, which they esteem more than any other military weapon.
Canton is composed, as it were, of three different cities, so united that the same gates serve to go out from one, and enter another. These three cities form a regular square; the streets are long and narrow, and paved with broad stone, and ornamented from space to space with triumphal arches; some of them are covered; these contain the richest shops. The houses are like those of Peking, some of which are hung with paper, or pieces of white taffety, on which are written, in Chinese characters, religious and moral sentences. They have no chimnies, but, in their stead, place a shallow, iron pot filled with charcoal, in the middle of the room, in winter, which is suffocating to people unaccustomed to it. In their kitchens they have a copper, built in brick-work, much about the height of our English stoves. The windows are made of cane, or rattan. In winter, they cut oyster-shells into diamond-shape, and set them in wooden frames, but these afford only a dull light.
The shops of those that deal in silk, are very neat, make a fine show, and are all in one place; for tradesmen, or dealers in any kind of goods, herd together in the same street. On this account you may hear the English sailors talking of the streets of Canton, as if they were speaking of London, or some other English city. The street where the China-shops are, they call China-Row; that where cloaths are sold, Monmouth-Street; and that narrow street, where men's caps, shoes, &c. are exposed to sale, Mandarin-cap-alley; and a narrow passage, close to the city-wall, where lapidary and glass-work is sold, is called Stone-cutter's-alley; and so of many others. The shops have counters, drawers, and divisions, much like our own, and there are few of the merchants, but who have a person that can speak broken English or Portuguese; so that French, Dutch, and Danes, are obliged to speak either the one or the other, when they traffic with them.
There are a great number of market-places for fish, flesh, poultry, vegetables, and all kinds of provisions. Every thing is sold cheap. Fishmongers keep their fish alive in cisterns. Dogs, cats, frogs, and rats, are here sold as provisions. Indeed, the Chinese have good appetites, for they will eat any sort of meat, that which dies in a ditch, equally as hearty as that killed by a butcher. Dogs and cats are commonly brought to market alive, in baskets, are generally young and fat, and kept very clean. Rats, some of which are of a monstrous size, are very fat, and generally hung up with the skins on, by nails on the posts of the market-place. Frogs, which are the greatest dainty here, are sold at a great price. They are black, and loathsome to a European eye, but the Chinese say, they have a very fine taste. The rats, they say, eat well; and snake-broth was in reputation here, long before it was known to us. Frogs are strung upon a rod, in the same manner as we string fish in England.
In passing through the streets, one is almost suffocated by the stench of the houses on each side, and particularly a street about a mile above the English factory, where there is nothing but cook-shops. They have large hogs roasted whole, and numbers of dogs, cats, and rats, upon the spits, and the cooks themselves, with their utensils, have such a dirty appearance, that the sight, or smell may almost satisfy the keenest European appetite. They send about their victuals for sale, by
Cowlies,
or porters.
The common people, says
Lockyer,
eat four times a day, and are such gluttons, that, if they are in the middle of their business, will leave it, and run to their victuals at the usual hour. Rice is their usual diet, which they cram into their mouths so greedily, with their chop-sticks (which are a substitute for fork and spoon) that it would probably choak them, if they did not wash it down every now and then, with a cup of samshue, standing by them. Some of them will eat six pint-basons of rice at one meal.
People of condition are here carried about in chairs. The streets are continually crowded, especially with porters, who are all loaded, and have, for the most part, their heads, legs, and feet bare. There is no convenience in this city for conveying goods from one part to another, but on men's shoulders.
In the streets of Canton, we often meet with blind beggars, a disease which some imagine is the consequence of their living so much upon rice; or it may be owing to the hot winds which blow here at certain seasons; they are, indeed, miserable objects, and commonly go naked, excepting a trowser, or cloth round their waist; their skins are as black as Malays, and sometimes so parched, spotted, and full of running sores and ulcers, that they truly stink alive. They go sometimes in companies, and are sure to follow and plague Europeans, because they get from one foreigner, more, sometimes, than from a dozen of their own countrymen. They hold out a coarse China bason, and will not leave you until you put something into it; nay, if you are not upon your guard, they will run against you, with their dirty hands, and diseased bodies. The common sailors give them usually a bit of tin, in order to save their money, and avoid coming in contact with these most wretched of creatures. The Chinese themselves are very uncharitable; they never give money to a beggar, but put them off with a small handful of rice.
There are a great many, private walks about the skirts of the town, where those of the better sort have their houses, and which are little frequented by Europeans, whose business is chiefly in the trading part of the city, where there are only shops and warehouses. Few of the Chinese keep their families in the houses where they do business, but, either in the city, in the more remote suburbs, or further up the country.
As the women in China are kept so very private, that many have made voyages there, and never seen a woman, but of the lowest rank; it is natural for them to pry into the most retired and unfrequented places, where there is a probability of the womens being least upon their guard; and in such rambles, a European's curiosity is seldom entirely disappointed. Sometimes they pop in on a parcel of young boys and girls, attended by their nurses; but when this happens, they are all so frighted at the sight of a
Fanquy,
as they call foreigners, that they will scream out, and run into their houses, and by their noise▪ alarm the whole street. Their houses having no windows to the street, and having a screen of split cane before the door, it is impossible to see them; though they can easily see any person without, through the lattice-work of the screen.
Now and then, on turning a corner, or on entering a private street, suddenly, we find ourselves in a company of young ladies, conversing or playing together; but they no sooner see us, than they set up a scream, and run for shelter into their apartments, as if the devil himself was chasing them.
"However," says an Englishman, who has been often at Canton,
these accidental interviews made us very happy; for we frequently saw some charming creatures, surpassing all description, and whose beauty, most Europeans, who have been there, are intirely ignorant of. Indeed we could only be happy in the glance of one or two such, in a street, for the screaming of one caught out of doors, immediately alarmed the rest of the ladies, and baffled our curiosity.
Sometimes, indeed, we met them at a considerable distance from their houses, and, as their feet are so little, that they cannot walk or run, but rather trip, or hobble along, and are often obliged to assist themselves by laying hold of the wall, as they move along; it gave us an opportunity to gaze on them attentively, on such occasions, that they seemed so affrighted, and walked so awkwardly, that I was fain to retire, lest I should have made them stumble and fall, for which I should certainly have been bamboo'd.
The complexion of the ladies is exceeding fair, and their hair of the finest black, dressed up with gold and silver bodkins, and adorned with flowers. Their shape is exquisitely fine, and their dress the most becoming, natural, easy, and splendid, I ever saw.
Before we left Canton, they were so familiarized to our visits, that the young boys would frequently come, or were sent, to salute us; but if we offered to approach the houses, where their mothers, or nurses waited their return, they presently ran from us, and shut the door.
It is reckoned, that there are, in the city and suburbs, 1,200,000 people, and you will scarce find a day in the whole year, but there are 5000 trading vessels lying before the town.
THE FOREIGNERS QUARTER AT CANTON
The English factory is situated in one of the best streets in the town, where all foreigners reside. It is very large, has a number of courts, halls, and warehouses; with convenient rooms to lodge a great number of people. One large gate opens to the street, and another to the water, where our boats load and unload. At each gate, a centinel is kept day and night. There is also a petty officer appointed, to see the centinels duly relieved, and the porters, or
cowlies,
do their duty; to take an account of all goods, that come in or go out of the factory; to prepare rooms for the officers and people, when they come to reside some little time in the factory; to entertain the officers and men, and, in a word, to see that every thing is kept in proper order; for all the officers and men are allowed a certain time to reside, and do business, at Canton, according to their station, which they do by turns: and, in the factory, often sixty persons are entertained at once.
The temples, and places of public worship, are the most magnificent buildings at Canton; they are well stocked with images, to which the people pay profound adoration, by falling down on their knees before them, wringing their hands and beating their foreheads against the ground. These temples, or joss-houses, are generally one story high, and are very numerous; they are decorated with a great number of artificial flowers, embroidered hangings, curtains, and fringes. One of them, situated in the skirt of the north-east side of the suburbs, makes a splendid appearance: it is four stories high, has a fine cupola, with many out-houses and galleries. This was formerly a palace belonging to the Wang-tai, or king of the province of Canton, before the Tartars conquered China, and who was then an independant prince. Before the principal gate of the temple are two large images, one on each side, about 12 feet high, with spears and lances in their hands, somewhat resembling those in Guildhall, London: this gate leads into a fine, large, paved court, and we enter the temple which fronts it, by free-stone steps. The lower part of the temple is built with fine hewn stone, but the upper part is timber. In the lower hall, there are a number of images of all sizes, and of different dignities, all finely gilt, and kept exceedingly clean, by the priests. Lesser images are placed in the corners of the hall, and one of a larger size in the middle. The center god sits in a lazy posture, with his heels drawn up to his breech, almost naked, particularly his breast and belly, and leaning on a large cushion: he is ten times larger than an ordinary man, very corpulent, and of a merry countenance, and gilt all over: models of this, in China-ware, have often been brought to England. Upstairs there are also many images of men and women, who have been deified for their brave and virtuous actions.
The rooms of this cathedral, or temple, are large and spacious, but very old, and much out of repair. It is surrounded with canals and gardens, but for want of proper care, the water is stagnated, and over-grown with weeds and ruins.
Though Canton is but 24 degrees from the equator, and is scorching hot in summer, yet, about the months of December and January, it is subject to high winds, and very heavy rains. The sudden alteration, the climate and temperature of the air then undergoes, is very surprising. At this time, the people of China take to their winter-dress, which is lined with furs, or quilted cotton. Instead of wearing fans, which are used by men, women, and children, in hot weather, they keep a live quail in their hands, to keep them warm, and have the long sleeves of their gowns down, to cover their hands. Thus equipped, they walk so stiff, and shove up their shoulders so much, that one would think they were freezing to death.
The streets of Canton, in the time of those violent storms, called the
Typhones,
are over-flowed with water, and it is often so deep, that in many places it will float a small boat. Common people then pass from street to street, by wading through the water, but those of the better class, are carried in chairs, or on men's backs. Their umbrellas are now used to shade them from the sun, which just before were used to keep off the rain.
The river Ta, at Canton, is somewhat broader than the Thames at London; but the crowds of small vessels that ply the Ta, are vastly more numerous. For the space of four or five miles opposite the city, is an extensive, wooden town of large vessels and boats, stowed so close, as scarce to leave room for a boat to pass. They are generally drawn up in ranks, with a narrow passage left, for vessels to pass and re-pass. Some of them are large vessels, of 8 or 900 tons burthen, called junks in which they perform their foreign voyages. Here are also an incredible number of small boats, in which poor families live all their life-time; begetting, and bringing up children without ever putting a foot on shore: in these they keep hogs, dogs, cats, geese, and other domestic animals, both for subsistence and sale. We have nothing similar to this in Europe; but people in China are so exceedingly numerous, that vast numbers of families are obliged to betake themselves to boats on the river, for want of room, or means of subsistence on the land, where almost every habitable spot is occupied. These boats are very conveniently built, with arched covers, and tilts, made of solid wood, or with bamboo, or cajan leaves, so high, that people can walk upright under them. They manage them very nimbly, having a sculling oar at the stern, with which they push them on very fast, and pass each other with ease and safety.
The large sampans, for in-land carriage, are generally steered with sculls, for were they to use oars, there would not be room on the river for half their number. They have all long, bamboo poles, for pushing up along shore. These boats are employed in carrying goods and passengers up and down the rivers and canals.
The smaller boats are employed in catching fish with nets; which they barter for cloaths, flesh, rice, and other necessaries. The owners of these boats, are always at home, as they carry their houses along with them, but miserably poor: their children are numerous, and, in summer, go quite naked. They are much tanned, continually crawling about the boat, and have all of them calabash shells tied on their backs, to buoy them up, and save them from drowning, should they chance to fall over-board, which often happens. Their beds are fixed below the deck on which they live, and which, being made of boards, and jointed, can be occasionally removed. In the hinder part of the boat, is a place where a stove is fixed to dress their food, and another apartment for keeping their live animals, which they have in great numbers, and which, when they want room, they hang in baskets, on the outside of the boat.
These boats come crowding about the European ships, at Wampo, especially at dinner-time, begging victuals from the people on board, in return for which, they offer to wash their linen, and do other menial offices.
Some of these boats have smart, young girls on board of them, which induces the sailors to employ them; and it is among these miserable wretches, that European sailors, taking advantage of their necessities, bargain with a father or mother, for the favours of their daughter. But this traffic must be carried on very secretly, lest it should be observed by the petty mandarins, who are appointed to visit often, and keep order and discipline in this floating world. These mandarins are continually going up and down the rivers, searching such boats as they have any reason to suspect. Should any European be caught in them, with a young woman, he, together with the people of the boat, must undergo the chastisement of the bamboo, or bribe the mandarin with a dollar or two, to let them pass. There are some of these boats called
loblob
boats, well stocked with a number of beautiful, young women, of different ages, to whom every body, Chinese or European, may have access at any time. Though these boats are under the jurisdiction of the mandarins, and equally liable to punishment, with the others; yet there is so good an understanding between the mandarins, and the proprietors of these boats, that they deal pretty extensively, and with great safety; only, when they discern a European, who has a large sum of money about him, they lay their heads together to make the most of him. It is said, the mandarins themselves are no strangers to these boats, particularly when there are any fresh goods embarked. Pimps are numerous. If a European wants to see a lady of pleasure, it is only speaking to these fellows, who will immediately conduct you in a small sampan, to a place where your wishes may be gratified. These enterprises, however, are not always executed without danger.
At the entrance of the bay of Canton, is the celebrated Portugueze port, called Macao, in latitude 22 degrees, 12 minutes. The town is built on the point of a small island, which commands a good road, and safe shelter for shipping. The Portuguese obtained this port, as a reward for some assistance they gave against a celebrated pirate, who had laid siege to the capital of this large province; but they submit to the Chinese, pay their customs to the Emperor, and obey his mandarins. They have, however, a governor of their own, and pay the Emperor annually, a tribute of 100,000 ducats, for the liberty of choosing their own magistrates, exercising their religion, and living according to their own laws. Their houses are built after the European manner, and the city is defended by three forts, well planted with artillery.
It is remarkable that the Portuguese here hold their Sunday on the same day the Spaniards, on the Philippine Islands, do their Saturday. This difference of days, which is general through the week, arises from the different routes these nations take, in going to their several settlements. The Portuguese, in going to Macao, sail eastward; whereas the Spaniards, in going to the Philippine Isles, from America, sail to the west.
Four leagues from Canton, is the famous village of Fo-chan, the largest and most populous in the world. It is called a village, not having a governor, nor being enclosed with walls; yet it contains more houses and inhabitants, than even Canton itself. It is reckoned to be three leagues in circumference.
North-east of Canton, in the province of Fo-kien, the Port, called Emouy, from the island that forms it. It is so large, that several thousand vessels may ride at anchor in it, and the depth of water is so great, that the largest ships may lie close to the shore without danger. It used to be much frequented by European vessels; but all the trade is now removed to Canton. There is, however, a garrison of 6 or 7000 men, commanded by a Chinese general. Three leagues from it, is a small island, with a natural arch in the middle, which can be seen through, and it is hence called the
perforated island.
The isle of Emouy is particularly celebrated for the magnificence of its principal pagoda, consecrated to the deity Fo.
The most easterly port on the continent of China, is Nimpo. This is a city of the first magnitude, very populous, and beautified with many triumphal arches. It is but two days sail from Japan, with which island, they carry on a great trade.
END OF THE FIFTH VOLUME.
A Description of the Plates in the first five Volumes, which will also serve as a Direction to the Binder, where to place them.
VOL. I.
1.
A map of the countries round the North Pole,
to face the title.
2.
Eis-Blink, or the ice-bridge, in Greenland, eight leagues long, and two broad; whose glances in the air, resembling the Aurora Borealis, may be seen for many leagues
to face page 9
3.
Umiak, or the woman's boat of Greenland, removing a whole family
41
4.
Greenlanders with Seals, and the apparatus for catching them
48
5.
A singing combat, between two parties of Greenlanders
67
6.
Eskimaux Indians, in North America, strangling an aged parent, at his request
95
7.
Geyser, or the boiling fountain in Iceland, with Icelanders, and a view of Mount Hecla, a volcano
108
8.
Icelanders, with a view of Hecla, and a cottage
126
9.
A bear-hunt among the Laplanders, in their snow-shoes
199
10.
Laplanders travelling
207
11.
Man of Norway, Sweden, and part of Denmark
237
12.
Filefield, a mountain in Norway, over which the high post-road passes, and wherein the way is so narrow, that if two horsemen meet, there is no alternative, but one raising himself over the other, and precipitating his horse down the steep, to let the other horse pass
254
13.
Norwegians at work
333
VOL. II.
14.
A map of the Russian dominions
to face the title.
15.
View of the city of Moscow, in Russia
11
16.
Different tribes of Tartar women, the Mordvines, people of Mokscha and Tschuwa; with a view of the mausoleum of the Khans, at Kasimof
25
17.
Kirguese, with a view of the ruins of Bulgari
93
18.
A ruin at Bulgari
97
19.
Old Tartarean coins
100
20.
Cossacks fishing on the ice
108
21.
Cossacks fishing in the river Jaik, for the Beljuga
191
22.
Kalmucks going a hawking, with a view of the tomb of a Tartar prince
205
23.
The inside and outside view of a Kalmuck tent, with the manner of striking their tents, and removing their abode; a family dwelling in one tent
212
24.
Kalmucks removing▪ with their herds and camels, and seeking a fresh abode
226
25.
Tartar idols
243, 247, 253, 263
26.
The Kalmuck method of smoking, till intoxicated, with the Tartarian broad-tailed sheep
302
27.
Method of the Kirguese Tartars entertaining their friends, by cramming them with scalding-hot food
319
VOL. III.
28.
Medscherak Tartars, and their way of catching wood-cocks
52
29.
The Tartarean duck, that swims with its hind parts under water, called
Anas Mersa;
and two plants of that country, called
Ferula,
a kind of fennel, and
Pterococcus,
that grows in the sands; with a distant view of the manner of catching wild geese,
66
29.
Baskirian women of Tartary; the white crane of that country; with a view of a Tartar temple and cemetery, near Troiskaja
117
30.
Tartars of Casan, with their houses
143
31.
The Snow-mountain, near Ossinowa Gora, in Tartary, in a thunder-storm; a vagrant Tartar, and the stone-hare, that lives in the rocks
204
32.
A Tschulym wedding, by fire-light, with the tents of those people
243
33.
Eastjaik Tartars, near the mouth of the Oby river; their snow-shoes, or scates, their tents by the sea-side, &c. method of bringing home the provision they find, on sledges: a man going down a hill, behind the sledge
290
VOL. IV.
34.
Samojede Tartars, neighbours to the Eastjaiks, with their method of catching seals on the ice
7
35.
Chinese delivering the moon, when eclipsed, by a variety of noises; and a view of a Chinese city
90
36.
Tunguse sorcerers of Tartary, with their drums, and nightly incantations
125
37.
Sajan Tartars digging the dog's-tooth root, called Bess; with the wild horse, and plant
Rhododendron,
or Savin-tree, described p.
187 171
38.
Beltir Tartars, with their method of exposing their dead, and sacrificing a horse on the occasion
176
39.
A bear-chace, by Tartars. Dr. Pallas and his suite spectators.
186
40.
Wotiak Tartars, with their method of saluting each other
230
41.
A Tscheremissian Tartar, conducting home his bride, in procession
249
42.
Kundarau (a kind of gipsey) Tartars, with their method of encamping, riding, and removing their tents
265
43.
Mode of selling Circassian women at market
294
VOL. V.
44.
Tunguse Tartars fishing by fire-light
11
45.
A Kamtschadale attempting to ravish his bride, (their marriage-ceremony) with a view of their winter and summer-houses.
46.
Inside of a Kamtschadale winter-house
41
47.
Tschoutksches Tartars, with the Morses, or Sea-horses
89
48.
Map of Bherings Streights, between Africa and North America
98
49.
Natives of Oonalashka, with the outside of a house
114
50.
Inside of an Oonalashka house
116
51.
The plan of the city of Petersburgh, in Russia
142
52.
A Russian peasant, bowing to a nobleman, his landlord; with a Kibitki, or travelling carriage
179
53.
A view of the Ice-hills, erected on the Neva, at Petersburgh, as a winter-diversion
185
54.
Empress of Russia's mode of travelling on the snow, by fire-light
197
55.
Map of China
243
56.
Chinese, naval engagement
266
57.
Plan of the city of Peking, in China, with the Imperial throne
311
58.
View of Wampoo, the place in the river Ta, at Canton, where the foreign ships lie
331
59.
The foreigners' quarters, in the suburbs of Canton, with a view of the English factory
339