THE
Habitable World
DESCRIBED.
Inscribed by Permission to His Royal Highness Frederick:
DUKE OF YORK, &c. &c.
LONDON:
Published as the Act directs, by the Author, Sold at the
Literary Press.
No . 62. Wardour Street Soho.
1790.
THE HABITABLE WORLD DESCRIBED, OR THE PRESENT STATE OF THE PEOPLE IN ALL PARTS OF THE GLOBE, FROM NORTH TO SOUTH; SHEWING The Situation, Extent, Climate, Productions, Animals, &c. &c. of the different Kingdoms and States; Including all the new Discoveries: TOGETHER WITH The Genius, Manners, Customs, Trade, Religion, Forms of Government, &c. of the Inhabitants, and every thing respecting them, that can be either entertaining or informing to the Reader, collected from the earliest and latest Accounts of Historians and Travellers of all Nations;
With some that have never been published in this Kingdom;
And nothing advanced but on the best Authorities.
WITH A great Variety of MAPS and COPPER-PLATES, engraved in a capital Style, the Subjects of which are mostly
new,
and such as have never yet been given in any English work.
BY THE REV. DR. JOHN TRUSLER.
VOL. XIII.
LONDON:
Printed for the AUTHOR, at the LITERARY-PRESS, NO. 62, WARDOUR STREET, SOHO; and sold by all Booksellers.
M DCC XCIII.
TURKEY IN EUROPE.
CHAP. XXIV.
Livadia continued.
WHILE Athens continued independent, the stage was ennobled by the glorious produce of Attic genius; by the solemn chorus; by a
Sophocles,
and a
Maenander.
When Rome had prevailed, it was degraded and prostituted to the savage combats of gladiators; and in the time of
Trajan,
the Athenians exceeded even the Corinthians in their relish of that cruel pastime.
In the rock above the theatre, is a large cavern, the front ornamented with marble pilasters of the Corinthian order, supporting an entablature, on which are three inscriptions. Over that in the middle is a female figure, which had lost its head in the year 1676, mounted on two or three steps sedent. On one side is a marble sun-dial, moved away from its proper position. It is of a kind anciently very common, as is evident from the great number still in use about Athens, particularly in the tract called
the gardens,
where many are set on the mud walls, often with very rude gnomons. Above the cavern are two columns, standing on the steep slope, between the foot of the castle-wall, and the sedent figure. The Greeks have converted the cave into a chapel, which is called
the Virgin of the Grotto.
The sides of the rock within, are covered with holy portraits. The door is rarely open; but I was once present, says
Chandler,
at the celebration of mass, when it was lighted up with wax-candles, and filled with smoke of incense, with bearded priests, and a devout croud; the spectacle suiting the place, which is at once solemn and romantic.
At some distance from the theatre of
Bacchus,
begins an outwork of the fortress, standing on ancient arches, supposed to be the remains of a portico, connected with the theatre called the Odeum. This fabric was designed by
Pericles,
for the musical contests, which he regulated and introduced at the Panathancean solemnity. It contained many rows of seats and marble columns. The roof was constructed with the masts and yards of Persian ships, and formed to imitate the pavilion of
Xerxes.
Here was the tribunal of the archives, or chief magistrate; and here the Athenians listened to the rhapsodists rehearsing the poems of
Homer,
and to the songs in praise of the patriots
Harmodius,
and
Aristogiton,
and
Thrasybulus. Aristion
and
Sylla
set it on fire; the former, when he fled to the Acropolis, because the timber would have enabled the enemy to raise machines for an attack, without loss of time. It was restored by king
Ariozanes;
and in a stable is an inscription, which has belonged to a statue of him, erected by the persons whom he appointed the overseers. This fabric was roofed with cedar; and Greece had not a rival to it in dimensions and magnificence. The wall of the inner front of the Proscenium is still standing, very lofty, with open arches; and beyond it, a portion of the exterior wall of the right wing is visible. On the right hand, within the gate, is the way into the area, which was sown with wheat; as was also the circular sweep of the hill on which the seats once ranged. The Dervishes have a place of worship above, with a room, in which the bow-string, when a Turk is sentenced to be strangled, is commonly administered.
By the side of the mountain of the Acropolis, nearly opposite to the rock of the Aeropagus, is a large, naked, semicircular area or terrace, supported by stones of a vast size, the face cut into squares. The descent into the area is by hewn steps, and the rock within is smoothed down perpendicularly in front, extending to the sides; not in a strait line, but with an obtuse angle at the steps. This place, says
Chandler,
has been mistaken for the Areopagus, and for the Odeum, but was the Pnyx.
Pnyx, was a place of public assembly, not boasting the curious labour of a theatre, but formed with the simplicity of primitive times. There the citizens met to transact their affairs; and by law no person could be crowned elsewhere, on a decree of the people. The business was done afterwards in the theatre of
Bacchus;
but they continued to chuse the magistrates, and to vote the praetor in Pnyx, which was hallowed by command of an oracle. The furniture, on record, is a stone or altar; on which, certain oaths were taken: a pulpit for the orators; and a sun-dial made on the wall. The pulpit, which before looked towards the sea, was turned contrary by the thirty tyrants, who considered naval dominion as the parent of democracy. Excepting the accession of soil, with the removal of the altar, the pulpit, and the sun-dial; Pnyx may be deemed to have undergone no very material alteration. It had formerly many houses about it; and the region of the city was called by its name.
We proceed now to another magnificent fabric, in the vicinity of the Acropolis; the temple of
Theseus.
This temple is of the Doric order; and in the style of its architecture, greatly resembles the Parthenon, or temple of
Minerva.
Though a very ancient fabric, it is entire, except the roof, which is modern and vaulted, with an aperture or two for the admission of light. The pavement has been removed, and the walls are bare. It is a Greek church, dedicated to St. George. A recess for the sacramental table has been erected as in the Parthenon, but in the Pronaos; and decorated with portraits of Saints. The entrance is in the side of the cell, at a low door, which is kept locked, except on the festival when mass is celebrated. It is plated with iron, and much battered; the Turks firing at it with bullets, to try the force of their powder, the goodness of their pieces, or their own dexterity at a mark. In the corner within stands a circular marble, which has served as a fount. From the inscriptions which range in four columns, it appears to have belonged to the Pytraneum.
The sculptures still extant about this temple, though much impaired, witness the hand of a master, and furnish abundant proof that
Pericles
was its owner. The exploits of this hero and of
Hercules,
were carved on the Metopes, in sixteen compartments, in
alto relievo,
and the following subjects are intelligible: viz.
Theseus
killing the sow of
Crommyon;
throwing
Sciron
from a rock into the sea; wrestling with
Cercyon;
destroying the Minotaur; driving the bull of Marathon to Athens;
Hercules
strangling the Nemaean lion; with
Jolaus
destroying the hydra; receiving the golden apples from a nymph, one of the Hesperides.
At some distance from the Acropolis, in the plain, is a marble gate, which separated Hadrianopolis, or New Athens. It is related, that
Theseus
erected a column on the isthmus of Corinth, which remained above an hundred years to the time of
Codrus,
when it was demolished by the Peloponnesians. It had inscriptions in Greek; on one side, "Here is
Peloponnesus
not
Ionia;"
and on the other, "Here is not
Peloponnesus
but
Ionia."
The gate serving as a boundary, is inscribed in capitals in like manner. Over the arch on another side, "What you see is Athens, the old city of
Theseus;"
and on the other front, "What you see, is the city of
Hadrian,
not of
Theseus!
This fabric, which is of the Corinthian order, with the tower of the winds, and other structures at Athens, is seen to disadvantage, from the accession of soil round about it. Beyond it, within the region of new Athens, is the majestic ruin of the temple of
Jupiter Olympius.
Deucalion,
was said to have erected the first temple of
Jupiter,
on this spot; and the place of his burial was shewn near it, to prove he had lived at Athens.
Pisistratus,
the second founder, dying, his son carried on the work; but after they were slain, so many difficulties occurred, that it remained unfinished for ages; a specimen of the only temple in the whole world, designed, with a grandeur worthy of the ruler of Heaven; and exciting astonishment in every beholder. About four hundred years after,
Antiochus
promised to complete it, and
Cossutius,
a Roman architect, was extolled for his noble ideas of magnitude in the cell, and for disposing the columns, and the entablature, with an exact symmetry, which testified his exquisite knowledge and skill. The temple was a dipteros and hypaethros, or with double rows of columns, and open to the sky; though not as was most common, with ten, but with eight columns in front. Rome afforded no example of this species. It was one of the four marble edifices which had raised to the pinnacle of renown, the architects who planned them; men, it is said, admired in the assembly of the gods, for their wisdom and excellence.
Sylla,
when he punished Athens, dared to plunder even
Jupiter Olympius,
and removed columns and brazen housholds to adorn the capital of Rome. The structure still continuing imperfect; the kings, in alliance with
Augustus,
agreed to finish it by contribution, and jointly dedicate it to the genius of the emperor. It was reserved for
Hadrian,
to put the last hand to a work, on which Athens had expended seven thousand and eighty-eight talents. In our estimate of the gold which decked the statue of
Minerva,
in the Parthenion, we said, forty-four talents were equivalent to an hundred and twenty thousand pounds sterling. Let it be judged then, what an immense sum this fabric, the work of ages, must have cost; little short of eight millions sterling. This atchivement of the emperor, was celebrated in a hymn sung at the sacrifice, when he dedicated the temple to
Jupiter,
more than seven hundred years after its foundation by
Pisistratus.
The ruin of the temple of
Jupiter Olympius,
consists of prodigious columns, tall and beautiful, of the Corinthian order, sluted; some single, some supporting their architraves; with a few massive marbles beneath; the remnant of a vast heap, which only many ages could have consumed and reduced into so scanty a substance. The columns are of very extraordinary dimensions, being about six feet in diameter, and near sixty in height. The number without the cell, was one hundred and sixteen, or twenty; seventeen were standing in 1676. One was overturned a few years before we arrived, says
Chandler,
with much difficulty; and applied to the building of a new mosque, in the Bazar, or market-place. It was an angular column, and of consequence in determining the dimensions of the fabric.
New Athens, was supplied with water, by the munificence of
Hadrian,
from remote sources at a vast expence. He founded a very extensive aqueduct, of which, many piers are yet standing. The water was partly conveyed by a duct running along the side of the adjacent hill, and distributed to the town from a reservoir or cistern, cut in the rock, and fronted with an arcade of marble, of the Ionic order. One half of this remains; it stands beneath the mountain of St. George, and is about a mile from the gate of Hadrian. The space between, where once was New Athens, is now ploughed and sowed.
On the left hand, returning from the aqueduct, is the bed of the Ilissus; and higher up, the junction of that and the Eridanus. The water of this river was so bad, that the cattle would scarcely drink of it. The Ilissus is now, as it ever was, an occasional torrent. In summer it is quite dry. During our residence at Athens, I several times visited the bed, after snow had fallen on the mountains, or heavy rain, hoping to see it filled to the margin, and rushing along with majestic violence; but never found even the surface covered; the water lodging in the rocky cavities, and trickling from one to another.
And here it may be remarked, that the poets who celebrate the Ilissus, as a stream laving the fields, cool, lucid, and the like, have both conceived, and conveyed, a false idea of this renowned water-course. They may bestow a willow fringe on its naked margin, amber waves on the muddy Maenander, and hanging woods on the bare rock of Delphi, but the foundation in nature will be wanting; nor, indeed is it easy for a descriptive writer, when he exceeds the sphere of his own observation, to avoid falling into local absurdities and untruths.
We have now given a survey of the most striking ruins in Athens. Two structures yet remain, either omitted or mentioned inexplicitly by other writers, which we shall just touch upon. One is the tower of the winds, or of
Andronicus Cyrrhestes.
The other is a Doric portal, situated at the foot of the hill of the Acropolis.
The tower of
Andronicus Cyrrhestes,
is a small edifice of marble, an octagon, decorated with sculpture, representing the winds; eight in number, and has supported a Triton, which turned as a weather-cock, and pointed with a wand to the wind then blowing. On the sides, were sun dials to shew the hour of the day. It is mentioned by
Varro
and
Vitruvius.
The Tower of the Winds is now a place of worship belonging to a college of Dervishes. I was present with my companions, says
Chandler,
at a religious function, which concluded with their wonderful dance. The company was seated on goat-skins on the floor cross-legged; forming a large circle.
The chief Dervish, a comely man, with a gray beard and of fine presence, began the prayers, in which the rest bore a part; all prostrating themselves as usual, and several times touching the ground with their foreheads. On a sudden, they leaped up, threw off their outer garments, and joining hands, moved round slowly to music, shouting
Alla,
the name of God. The instruments sounding quicker, they kept time, calling out
Alla. La illa ill Alla. God. There is no other God but God.
Other sentences were added to these, as their motion encreased; and the chief Dervish, bursting from the ring into the middle, as in a fit of enthusiasm, and letting down his hair behind, began turning about, his body poised on one of his great toes as on a pivot, without changing place. He was followed by another who spun a different way, and then by more, four or five in number. The rapidity with which they whirled round was gradually augmented, and became amazing; their long hair not touching their shoulders, but flying off; and the circle still surrounding them, shouting, and throwing their heads backwards and forwards; the dome re-echoing the wild and loud music and noise, as it were, of frantic bacchanals. At length some quitting the ring and fainting, at which time it is believed they are favoured with extatic visions, the spectacle ended. We were soon after introduced into a room furnished with skins for sofas, and entertained with pipes and coffee, by a chief Dervish, whom we found, with several of his performers, as cool and placid as if he had been only a looker on.
The Doric portal may be seen, with its inscriptions, in
The Ruins of Athens.
One of these informs us, that the people erected the fabric with the donations made to
Minerva,
by the god
Julius Caesar
and his son, the god
Augustus.
From the plan and proportions of the ruin, it has been inferred, that the fabric to which the portal belonged, was not a temple. An edict of the emperor
Hadrian,
inscribed on the jamb of a door-case, regulating the sale of oil, and the duties to be levied on it, has been urged in favour of the opinion that the portal was the entrance of the inclosure of the Agora or market-place, mentioned by
Strabo
to have been in a district of the city called
Etreria.
The territory of Athens was anciently well peopled. The small towns were in number 174; scattered, except some constituting the city, about the country. Frequent traces of them are found; and several still exist, but mostly reduced to very inconsiderable villages. Many of the ancient wells also occur all over Attica. Some are seen in the vineyards and gardens, nearly in their pristine state; a circular rim of marble, about a yard high, standing on a square pavement, adorned, not in-elegantly, with wreathed flutings on the outside; or plain, with mouldings at the top and bottom; the inner surface deep worn by the friction of ropes. The highest is a kettle, a jar, or the skin of a goat or kid distended; and close by is commonly a trough or hollow stone, into which they pour water for the cattle. The city was supplied with corn from Sicily and Africa; and the regard of the emperors and kings, its patrons, was displayed in largesses of wheat and barley to be distributed generally in the Ordeum. At present Attica is thinly inhabited, and probably produces grain sufficient for the natives; but the edicts prohibiting exportation, are continually eluded, and public distress, bordering on famine, ensues almost yearly.
The olive trees are now, as anciently, a principle source of the riches of Athens. The wood of these trees, watered by the Cephissus about three miles from the city, has been computed at least six miles long. The mills for grinding and pressing the olives are in the town. The oil is deposited in large earthen jars, sunk in the ground in the areas before the houses. The crops had failed for five years successively, says
Chandler,
when we arrived. The cause assigned was a northerly wind, which destroyed the flower. The fruit is set, in about a fortnight, when the apprehension from this unpropitious quarter ceases. By a law of
Solon,
no tree could be planted less than five feet, nor an olive, or fig tree, less than nine feet from one of another proprietor.
The honey, as well as the oil of Attica, was antiently in high repute. Many encomiums are extant on that of
Hymetteus,
and it deserves them all. Flies are remarked to buzz about it, without settling, which has been attributed to the odour it derived from thyme. The race of bees was said to have been originally produced in Hymettus, and to have swarmed from thence, in numerous colonies, to people other regions. The mountain furnishes a succession of aromatic plants, herbs and flowers, peculiarly adapted to maintain them both in summer and winter. The hives are set on the ground in rows, enclosed within a low wall. Their form and management, and the method of taking the comb without destroying the insect, has been described by
Wheeler.
By a law of
Solon,
no person was allowed to place a stand within three hundred yards of one before established.
The purple hills of Hymettus, were the scene of the famous story of
Cephalus
and
Procris,
in
Ovid.
The fatal mistake of the husband was said to have happened among some thickets, near a sacred spring or fountain. This seems the spot called Pera; where was a temple of
Venus,
and a water, which was believed to conduce to pregnancy, and an easy delivery. The same, it is probable, is now occupied by the monastery of Cyriani. In many instances, the temple or its site, with the consecrated portion, have changed their owners; and the deity been dispossessed by the saint. The convent is an old irregular building, on the side of the greater Hymettus, in view from Athens; encompassed by a wall with battlements, and entered by a low iron door. The Greek women repair to it at particular seasons; and near it is a fountain much extolled for its virtues. The popes or priests affirmed, that a dove is seen to fly down from heaven, to drink of it yearly, at the feast of Pentecost. From the top of this mountain, is a fine prospect of the country, and of the islands in the Aegean seas.
CHAP. XXV.
Ancient and present State of Athens, with the Character, Manners, Customs, and Dress of the Inhabitants.
ATHENS has on the West side of the plain, the mountains Aegaleos and Parnes; on the North, Brilessus; on the North-east, about six miles distant, Pentele; and next the Aegaean sea, Hymettus. The clouds, attracted by some of these mountains, antiently furnished a variety of prognostics for the weather; while clouds above the mountains on the side of Hymettus, portended ruin. If in the night, a long cloud guided it beneath the top, the rain generally continued for some days. A long cloud resting on Hymettus in winter, pre-signified a violent storm. At the setting of the seven stars, called
Vergiliae,
lightning about Parnes, Brilessus, and Hymettus, if all were comprehended, denoted a great storm; if two, a lesser; but if Parnes alone, severe weather. A storm ensued, if clouds enveloped that portion of Parnes, which was towards Zephyrus or the West.
A day or two after the storm before-mentioned, says
Chandler,
the capuchin, as we were conversing by the window of his apartment, put his hand incautiously on the frame, and suddenly withdrawing it complained of a painful puncture; a Turk who was with us, on examining the wall, found a scorpion of a pale green colour, and near three inches long, which he crushed with his foot, and bound on the part affected, as an antidote to its own poison. The smart became inconsiderable after the remedy was applied; and as no inflammation followed, soon ceased. The sting, if neglected, produces acute pain, attended with a fever and other symptoms for several hours, until the paroxysm is over; when, the malignity of the virus, as it were decaying, the patient is left gradually free. Some preserve scorpions in oil, in a vial, to be used, if that which commits the hostility should escape; though it seldom happens, but on turning up a log or stone, another may be found to supply its place.
Athens was the parent of philosophy as well as of eloquence, and had three celebrated Gymnasia without the city, the Academy, the Lyceum, and Cynosarges; from which, as many sects dated their origin, the Platonic, the Peripatetic, and the Cynic; followers of
Plato,
of
Aristotle,
and of
Antisthenes. Zeno,
instituted the Stoic philosophy in the portico named
Poecile;
and
Epicurus
had his garden in the city.
The academy was in the suburb without Dipylon, distant from Athens only three quarters of a mile. It was once the possession of a private person named
Academus,
who gave it to the people.
Hipparchus,
son of
Pisistratus
surrounded it with a wall.
Crinon
drained the low grounds near it. The spot, parched and squalid, was improved and rendered very pleasant. The walks were shaded with tall plane trees, and cooled by running water. Before the entrance was an altar of love.
Plato
commenced teaching at the academy, then reputed unwholsome. Afterwards he preferred a small garden by the Colonus Hippius, his own property. The Lacedemonians spared the academy when they ravaged Attica; but
Sylla,
wanting timber for machines, cut down the grove there and at the Lyceum. The successors of
Plato
in the academy, enjoyed a considerable revenue; which, in the subsequent ages, was greatly augmented by legacies, from persons desirous of contributing to the leisure and tranquillity of the philosophic life. The little garden of
Epicurus,
was near the academy. The teacher of ease, it is recorded, was the first who introduced that species of gratification, the enjoyment of the country in town.
By the destruction of Dipylon and the city-wall, we are deprived of the ancient boundaries of Athens; and the town, besides being reduced in its extent, furnishes a variety of avenues to the plain. Moreover, the mansions of the illustrious dead, like the the bodies which they covered, are consumed and have disappeared. Time, violence, and the plough, have levelled all without distinction; equally inattentive to the meritorious statesman, the patriot, the orator, and philosopher; the soldier, the artist, and physician.
Atticus
is described by
Cicero,
as pleased with recollecting, where the renowned Athenians had lived, or been accustomed to sit or dispute; and as studiously contemplating even their sepulchres. The traveller will regret that desolation interferes, and by the uncertainty it has produced, deprives him of the like satisfaction; but, in the style of the antients, to omit the research would merit the anger of the muses.
It has been observed, that without Dipylon, the road branched off towards the Piraeus and Eleusis, as well as the academy. The road to the haven and to Eleusis, divides now not far from the temple of
Theseus;
and is nearly in the same direction as formerly. On the right-hand of the Eleusinian road, is a way which leads to the site of the academy. The Turkish Aga has lately erected a house, in or near it, with a large garden, and a plentiful fountain by the road side; supplied, it is likely, by the channels which conduced to the coolness and verdure of the old suburb.
We proceed now to the Gymnasia, on the other side of Athens; the Lyceum and Cynosarges.
The Lyceum was sacred to
Apollo,
a proper patron, as an antient author has remarked, the God of health, bestowing the ability to excel in gymnastic exercises. The image represented him as resting after fatigue, with a bow in his left hand, his right-arm bending over his head. The Gymnasium was erected by
Lycurgus,
son of
Lycophron.
The militia of Athens paraded there, and were instructed in the management of their horses, shields, and spears; in forming the phalanx, and in all the established modes of defence.
Cynosarges was but a little without the city-gate. There was a temple of
Hercules;
on a summit near was the tomb of
Isocrates. Philip,
who reduced the city to require aid from the Romans, encamped by Cynosarges, and set fire both to that place and the Lyceum.
The Lyceum was beyond the Ilissus. The site is now marked by a well and a church, and many large stones scattered about. Cynosarges was not far from the Lyceum; and perhaps on the same side of the Ilissus with the city, where is now a garden near this bed and by the road. The artificial currents of water having ceased, the environs of Athens are become more bare and naked, than they were even after the devastations of
Philip
and
Sylla.
Athens maintained under the Romans, its reputation for philosophy and eloquence; and continued, though subdued, the metropolis of learning, the school of art, and the centre of taste and genius. The Gymnasia, and the gardens of the philosophers were decorated with the capital works of eminent masters, and still frequented. The fierce warrior was captivated by Greece and Science; and Athens humanized and polished the conquerors of the world. But
Sylla
greatly injured the city, by transporting to Rome the public library, which had been founded by
Pisistratus,
carefully augmented by the people, removed by
Xerxes
into Persia, and restored long after by
Seleucus Nicanor.
The spirit of learning drooped on the loss; and the Roman youth, under
Tiberius,
were sent to study at Marseilles, instead of Athens. Even there the barbarous Gauls joined in the pursuit of eloquence and philosophy. The sophist, as well as the physician, was hired to settle among them; and the nation was civilized by the Greek city.
The emperor
Hadrian,
embellished Athens with a noble library, and a new gymnasium, and restored science to its ancient seat.
Lollianus,
an Ephesian, was first raised to the high dignity of the sophistical throne, which was afterwards filled by
Atticus Herodes,
and other eminent and illustrious persons. The number of professors was increased by
Antoninus
the philosopher, who had studied under
Herodes.
His establishment consisted of thirteen; two Platonists, as many Peripatics, Stoics, and Epicureans, with two Rhetoricians and Civilians; and a president stiled
Prefect of the Youth.
The student proceeded from the philosopher to the rhetorician, and then to the civilian. A yearly salary of about four hundred and sixty-eight pounds, was annexed to each of the philosophic chairs; and one of a talent to those of the civilians.
Education now flourished in all its branches at Athens. The Roman world resorted to its schools, and reputation and riches awaited the able preceptor. The tender mind was duly prepared for the manly studies of philosophy and eloquence. Age and proficiency were followed by promotion. The youth was advanced into the higher classes, enrolled with the philosophers, and admitted to their habit. The title of sophist was conferred on him, when mature in years and erudition; and this was an honour so much affected, that the attainment of it almost furnished an apology for insolent pride, and extravagant elation. It was a custom for the masters to inscribe on marble, the names of their scholars. Some specimens of these registers are preserved in the Oxford collection, and many fragments are yet extant in Athens.
At this period Athens abounded in philosophers. It swarmed, according to
Lucian,
with clokes and staves and satchels; you beheld every where a long beard, a book in the left-hand, and the walks full of companies, discoursing and reasoning The cloke, or Tribonium, was the habit of all the orders. The general colour was dark, but the Cynic wore white, and, with the Stoic, had the folds doubled. One shoulder was bare; the hair hanging down; the beard unshaven. The Cynic, with the Stoic and Pythagorean, was slovenly and negligent; his cloke in tatters, his nails long, and his feet naked. The Cynic was armed with a staff, as a defence from the dogs, or the rabble. The sophist was adorned with purple, and commonly polished, as well in dress and person, as in manners and language. It behoved the professor, as
Lucian
affirms, to be handsomely clothed, to be sleek and comely, and above all to have a flowing beard, inspiring those who approached him, with veneration; and suitable to the salary he received from the emperor.
A learned father, who was cotemporary with
Julian,
at Athens, has described the manner in which the Novice was treated on his arrival there, with the ceremony of initiation. He was first surrounded with the pupils and partizans of the different sophists, all eager to recommend their favourite master. He was hospitably entertained; and afterwards the students were allowed to attack him with rude or ingenuous disputation, as each was disposed. He was next to be invested with the habit. A procession in pairs, at equal distances, conducted him through the Agora, to a public bath. An opposition was feigned on their approach to the door, some calling out and forbidding his admission, some urging on and knocking. These prevailed. He was introduced into a warm cell, washed, and then clothed with the Tribonium. He was saluted as an equal, on his coming out, and re-conducted. No one was suffered to appear in that dress at Athens, without the permission of the sophist, and this ceremony, which was attended with considerable expence.
The philosophers were long as distinguished by their aversion to Christianity, as by their government. It is recorded of
Justin Martyr,
that he preached in the Tribonium, to which he had been admitted before his conversion. The establishment of Christianity deeply affected the prosperity of Athens. A gradual desertion of the place followed.
Minerva
could no longer protect her city. Its beauty was violated by the Pro-consul, who stripped Poecile of its precious paintings. It was forsaken by good fortune, and would have lingered in decay, but the barbarians interposed, and suddenly completed its downfall. When the Goths were in possession of it, in the time of
Clodius,
they amassed all the books, intending to burn them, but desisted on a representation, that the Greeks were diverted, by the amusements of study, from military pursuits.
Alaric,
under
Arcadius,
was not afraid of their becoming soldiers. The city was pillaged, and the libraries were consumed. Devastation then reigned within, and solitude without its walls. The sweet swain; the vocal nightingales, as the sophists are fondly styled, were heard no more. Philosophy and eloquence were exiled, and their ancient seat occupied by ignorant honey-factors of mount Hymettus.
Athens, after it was abandoned by the Goths, continued, it is likely, for ages, to preserve the race of its remaining inhabitants unchanged, and uniform in language and manners. History is silent of its sufferings from later incursions, from wars and massacres. Plenty, and prospect of advantage, produces new settlers; but, where no trade exists, employment will be wanting; and Attica was never celebrated for fertility. The plague has not been, as at Smyrna, a frequent visitant; because the intercourse subsisting with the islands, and other places, has been small, and the port is at a distance. The plague, described by
Thucidides,
began in the Piraeus, and the Athenians at first believed that the enemy had poisoned the wells. If from inadvertence the infection be now admitted into the town, the Turks, as well as the Greeks, have the prudence to retire to their houses in the country, or to the monasteries; and it seldom prevails, either so long or so terribly, as in cities on the coast.
A colony of new proprietors was introduced into the city by
Mahomet
the second; but the people secured some privileges by their capitulation, and have since obtained more by address, or money. The Turk has favoured the spot, and bestowed on it a milder tyranny. The Vaiwode purchases his government yearly, but circumspection and moderation are requisite in exacting the revenue, and the usual concomitants of his station are unceasing apprehension and danger. The impatience of oppression, when general, begets public vengeance.
The Turks of Athens are in general more polite, social, and affable, than is common in that stately race; living on more equal terms with their fellow-citizens, and partaking, in some degree, of the Greek character. The same intermixture, which has softened their austerity, has corrupted their temperance; and many have foregone the national abstinence from wine; drinking freely, except during their Ramazan, or Lent. Some too after a long lapse have re-assumed, and rigidly adhere to it; as suiting the gravity of a beard, and the decorum of paternal authority. Several of the families date their settlement from the taking of the city. They are reckoned at about three hundred. Their number, though comparatively small, is more than sufficient to keep the Christians fully sensible of their mastery. The Turks possess from their childhood, an habitual superiority, and awe with a look the loftiest vassal. Their deportment is often stern and haughty. Many in private life are distinguished by strict honour, by punctuality, and uprightness in their dealings; and almost all by external sanctity of manners. If they are narrow-minded in the extreme, it is the result of a confined education, and an avaritious temper is a natural consequence of their rapacious government.
The Greeks may be regarded as the representatives of the old Athenians. On our arrival in the Piraeus, an Archon came to meet us. The learned reader may perhaps be struck by that respectable title, and annex to it some portion of its classical importance; but the Archons are now meer names, except a tall fur cap, and a fuller and better dress than is worn by the inferior classes. Some have shops in the Bazar, some are merchants or farmers' of the public revenue. The families styled archontic, are eight or ten in number, mostly on the decline. The ordinary habit of the meaner citizens is a red skull-cap, a jacket, and a sash round the middle; loose breeches or trowsers, which tie with a large knot before; and a long vest, which they hang on their shoulders, lined with wool, or fur, for cold weather. By following the lower occupations, they procure, not without difficulty, a pittance of profit to subsist them, to pay their tribute-money▪ and to purchase garments for the festivals; when they mutually vie in appearing well-clothed, their pride even exceeding their poverty.
The lordly Turk and lively Greek neglecting agriculture, and even pasturage, this department which in Asia Minor is occupied by the Turcomans, has been obtained in Europe by the Albanians or Albanese. These are a people remote from their original country, which was by the Caspian Sea, spreading over, and cultivating alien lands; and as of old, addicted to universal husbandry, and to migration. It is chiefly their business to plough, sow and reap; dig, fence, plant and prune the vineyard; attend the watering of the olive-tree; and gather in the harvest; going forth before the dawn of day, and returning joyous in the evening, on the close of their labour. If shepherds, they live on the mountains, in the vale, or the plain, as the varying seasons require; under arbours or sheds covered with boughs, tending their flocks abroad, or milking the ewes and she-goats at the fold, and making cheese and butter to supply the city. Inured early to fatigue and the sun, they are hardy and robust; of manly carriage, very different from that of the fawning obsequious Greek, and of very desperate bravery, under every disadvantage, when compelled by necessity or oppression. Their habit is simple and succinct, reaching to the knees. They have a national language, and are members of the Greek communion.
The Christians in Athens, both Greeks and Albanians, are more immediately superintended by the archbishop, and by the two epitropi or curators, who are chosen from among the principal men, and venerable for their long beards. These endeavour to quiet all disputes, and prevent the parties from recurring to the severe tribunal of the Cadi, or Turkish judge; watching over the commonwealth, and regulating its internal policy, which still retains some faint and obscure traces of the ancient popular form, though without dignity or importance. A traditional story is related at Athens, and in the East, to illustrate the native quickness of apprehension; which, as if transmissive and the property of the soil, is inherited even by the lower classes of people. A person made trial of a poor shepherd whom he met with his flock, demanding in Greek, from whence he came, where going, who he was, and the number of his flock, thus;
from whence? and where? and who? and how many?
He was answered without hesitation, and with equal brevity, in the same language.
From Athens, to Livadia, Theodore, and five hundred.
In the citizens this aptitude not being duly cultivated, instead of producing genius, degenerates into cunning. They are justly reputed a most crafty, subtle, and acute race. It has been jocosely affirmed, that no Jew can live among them, because he will be continually outwitted. They are conscious of their subjection to the Turks, and as supple as depressed, from the memory of the blows on the feet, and indignities which they have experienced, or seen inflicted, and from the terror of the penalty annexed to resistance, which is the forfeiture of the hand uplifted: but their disposition, as anciently, is unquiet; their repose disturbed by factious intrigues and private animosities; the body politic weakened by division, and often impelled in a direction opposite to its true interest. They have two schools, one of which possesses a small collection of books, and is entitled to an annual payment from Venice, the endowment of a charitable Athenian, but the money is not regularly remitted.
The liberty of the fair sex at Athens, is almost equally abridged by the Turks and Greeks. Their houses are secured with high walls, and the windows turned from the streets, and latticed, or boarded up, so as to preclude all intercourse, even of the eyes. The
haram,
or apartment of the Turkish women, is not only impenetrable, but must not be regarded on the outside with any degree of attention. To approach them when abroad, will give offence; and in the town, if they cannot be avoided, it is the custom to turn to the wall, and stand still, without looking towards them, while they pass. This mode of carriage is good breeding at Athens.
The Turkish women in this city, claim an exemption from their confinement, on one day only in the week; when they visit their relations, and are seen going in companies to the baths, or sitting in the burying grounds on the graves of their friends, their children, husbands, or parents. They are then enwrapped and beclothed in such a manner, it is impossible to discern whether they are young or old, handsome, or ugly. Their heads, as low as the eye-brows, are covered with white linen, and also their faces beneath; the prominency of the nose and mouth giving them nearly the visages of mummies. They draw down a veil of black gauze over their eyes, the moment a man or boy comes in view. They wear short loose boots of leather, red or yellow, with a large sheet over their common garments, and appear, as in Constantinople, very bulky.
The dress of the Greek matrons, is a garment of red or blue cloth, the waist very short, the long petticoat falling in folds to the ground. A thin flowing veil of muslin, with a golden rim or border, is thrown over the head and shoulders. The attire of the virgins is a long red vest, with a square cape of yellow sattin hanging down behind. They walk with their hands concealed in the pocket-holes at the sides, and their faces are muffled. Sometimes they assume the Turkish garb. Neither prudence nor modesty suffers a maiden to be seen by the men before she is married. Her beauty might inflame the Turk, who can take her legally by force, to his bed on a sentence of the Cadi, or judge; and the Greek, if she revealed her face to him, even unwillingly, would reject her as criminal, and with disdain.
The Albanian women, in Athens, are inured early to hard living, labour and the sun. Their features are injured by penury, and their complexions by the air. Their dress is coarse and simple; a shift reaching to the ancle, a thick sash about the waist, and a short loose woollen vest. Their hair is platted in two divisions, and the ends fastened to a red silken string; which, with a tassel, is pendant to their heels, and frequently laden with pieces of silver coin, of various sizes, diminishing gradually to the bottom. Among these the antiquarian may often discover medals of value. They are seen carrying water on their backs, in earthen jars, with handles; washing by the fountains, or assembled by the Ilissus, after rain, with the female slaves of the Mahometans, and other servants; treading their linen, or beating it with a piece of heavy wood, spreading it on the ground or bushes to dry, and conveying it to and fro in panniers, or wicker-baskets, on an ass. Their legs and feet are generally bare; and their heads hooded, as it were with a long towel, which encircles the neck, one extremity hanging down before, and the other behind. The girls wear a red skull-cap, plated with peraus, or Turkish pennies of silver perforated, and ranged like the scales of fish.
The Greek will sometimes admit a traveller into his gynecaeum, or the apartment of his women. These within doors, are, as it were, uncased, and each a contrast of the figure she made when abroad. There the girl, like
Thetis,
treading on a soft carpet, has her white and delicate feet naked; the nails tinged with red. Her trowsers, which in winter, are of red cloth, and in summer of fine callico, or thin gauze, descend from the hip to the ancle, hanging loosely about her limbs; the lower portion embroidered with flowers, and appearing beneath the shift, which has the sleeves wide and open, and the seams and edges curiously adorned with needle-work. Her vest is of silk, exactly fitted to the form of the bosom, and the shape of the body; which it rather covers than conceals, and is shorter than the shift. The sleeves button occasionally to the hand, and are lined with red or yellow sattin. A rich zone encompasses her waist, and is fastened before by clasps of silver gilded, or of gold set with precious stones. Over the vest is a robe, in summer lined with ermine, and in cold weather with fur. The head-dress is a skull-cap, red or green, with pearls; a stay under the chin, and a yellow forehead-cloth. She has bracelets of gold on her wrists; and, like
Aurora,
is rosy-figured, the tips being stained. Her necklace is a string of zechins, a species of gold coin, or of the pieces called byzantines. At her cheeks is a lock of hair, made to curl towards the face; and down her back falls a profusion of tresses spreading over her shoulders. Much time is consumed in combing and braiding the hair, after bathing; and, at the greater festivals, in enriching and powdering it with small bits of silver gilded, resembling a violin in shape, and woven in at regular distances. She is painted blue round the eyes; and the insides of the sockets, with the edges, on which the lashes grow, are tinged with black.
For colouring the lashes and socket of the eye, they throw incense, or gum of Labdanum, on some coals of fire, intercept the smoke which ascends, with a plate, and collect the foot. This, says
Chandler,
I saw applied. A girl sitting cross-legged as usual, on a so
a, and closing one of her eyes, took the two lashes between the fore-finger and thumb of her left hand, pulled them forward, and then thrusting in, at the external corner, a bodkin, which had been immersed in the foot, and extracting it again, the particles before adhering to it, remained within, and were presently ranged round the organ; serving as a foil to its lustre; beads contributing, as they say, to its health, and increasing its apparent magnitude.
The improvement of the mind and morals, is not considered as a momentous part of female education at Athens. The girls are taught to dance, to play on the Turkish guittar, and the tympanum, or timbrel, and to embroider, an art in which they generally excel. A woman skilled in reading and writing, is spoken of as a prodigy of capacity and learning. The mother of
Osman Aga,
a Turk, says
Chandler,
who visited our house, was of this rare number, as he often told us; so terrible for her knowledge, that even
Achmet Aga
her kinsman, had been seen to tremble when he received her annual visit. In common life, the woman waits on her husband, and after dressing the provisions, which he purchased, eats perhaps with a female slave; the stately lord feeding alone, or in company with men.
Provisions of all kinds are good and cheap, at Athens. The frequent and severe fasts, imposed by the Greek church, have an influence on the market. The Christians are often, by the tenets of their religion, confined to vegetables, or to things without blood; such as snails, which they gather from the streets, the cutle-fish, or sea-polypus. The latter, called by the Greeks octopodes, from the number of its feet, is beaten to make it tender; and, when boiled, is white, like the tail of a lobster, but has not much flavour. Hares, game, and fowl, may be purchased for little more than the value of the powder and shot. Oranges, lemons, and citrons, grow in the gardens. The grapes and melons are excellent, and the figs were celebrated of old. The wines are wholesome; but the pitch infused to preserve them, communicates a taste to which strangers are not perfectly reconciled.
When the figs ripen, a very small bird, called by the Italians,
becea-figo,
by the Greeks
sycophas,
appears, and is continually settling on the branches of the tree, and pecking the fruit. If frightened away, they return almost immediately, and a person sitting in the corn, or concealed by a thicket, may fire with little intermission.
They are eaten roasted entire, each in a vine leaf, and are accounted a great delicacy. When the olives blacken, vast flights of doves, pigeons, thrushes, and other birds, repair to the groves for food. Wild turkies are not rare. The red-legged partridge, with his numerous brood, basks in the sun, or seeks shade among the mastic bushes. They are fond of the berries in the season, and have then a strong, but not disagreeable taste, In winter, woodcocks abound; descending, after snow, on the mountains, into the plain; especially on the side of the Cephissus, and as suddenly retiring. If the weather continues severe, and the ground be frozen, they enter the gardens of the town in great distress, rather than cross the sea; and are sometimes taken with the hand. Snipes, teal, widgeon, ducks, and the like, are also foundin plenty. A horse or ass is commonly provided by sportsmen, who go in a party, to bring home what they kill.
Hares are exceedingly numerous. Calling is practised, in still weather, from the latter end of May, to about the middle of August. Three or four men in a company, stand silent and concealed, in a thicket, with guns pointed in different directions. When all ready, the caller applies his fingers to his lips; and sucking them, at first slowly, and then faster, produces a squeaking sound; when the hares within hearing rush to the spot. In this manner many are slaughtered in a day. One of my companions, says
Chandler,
with two or three Greeks, who were adepts, killed eleven; among which was a female big with young. These animals are said to assemble together, to leap and play, at the full of the moon; and, it is likely, the shepherds, who live much abroad, observing and listening to them, learned to imitate their voices, to deceive, and make them thus foolishly abet their own destruction.
The wild beasts which find shelter in the mountains, greatly annoy the shepherds; and their folds are constantly guarded by several large fierce dogs. The person who killed a wolf, was entitled, by a law of
Solon,
to a reward; if a female, to one drachm, about seven-pence halfpenny; if a male, to five drachms. Afterwards a talent, or one hundred and eighty pounds sterling, was paid for a young wolf; and double that sum for a full grown. The peasant now produces the skin in the
Bazar,
or market, and is recompensed by voluntary contributions. Parnes, the mountain towards the Cephissus, is haunted, besides wolves, by deer and foxes, as it formerly was by wild boars and bears. The sportsmen lie in ambush by the springs, which they frequent, waiting their approach in the dusk of the evening.
Pliny
mentions the deer bred about Parnes and Brilessus, as remarkable for four kidneys, and the hares as having two livers. The latter peculiarity, in some which we purchased, was much noticed by our Swiss, who once brought the two livers for my inspection The youth of Athens were anciently trained to hunting, as a useful and manly exercise.
A place, where the fair sex bears no part in society, will be justly supposed dull and uniform. Indeed, a Turk is generally a solemn, solitary being; with few visible enjoyments, except his pipe and coffee. The former is his constant companion. It is his solace on the sopha; and, when squatting on his hams, as he is sometimes seen, in the shade, by the door of his house: or in a group, looking on, while the horses, which are staked down with a rope, feed, in the season, on the green corn. When he is walking, or riding, it is carried in his hand, or by an attendant. The tube is of wood perforated, commonly long and pliant; and sometimes hung with small silver crescents and chains, with a mouth-piece of amber. The bowl is earthen, and a bit of alse wood put into it, while he is smoaking, augments his pleasure, yielding a grateful perfume. A silken embroidered bag is usually tucked in at his sack, by his side, and contains tobacco. His horse, his arms, and
haram
are the other chief objects of his attention. He is grave, sententious and steady, but fond of narrations, and not difficult to be overcome by a story.
The Turks, in this city, observing we did not use the sign of the cross, and being informed that we disapproved of the worshipping of pictures or images, conceived, says
Chandler,
a favourable opinion of us. Their abhorrence of hog-flesh is unfeigned; and we derived some popularity from a report, which we did not contradict, that we held it in equal detestation. Several of them frequented our table. The principal Turks came all to our house at night, while it was Ramazan or Lent, when they fast in the daytime; and were entertained by us, with sweat-meat, pipes, coffee, and sherbet, much to their satisfaction, though distressed by our chairs; some trying to collect their legs under them, on the seats, and some squatting down by the sides. When we visited them, adds
Chandler,
we were received with cordiality, and treated with distinction. Sweet gums were burned in the middle of the room, to scent the air; or scattered on coals before us, while sitting on the sofa, to perfume our mustaches and garments; and at the door, on our departure, we were sprinkled with rose-water. The vaiwode, at certain seasons, sent his musicians to play in our court. The Greeks were not less civil; and at Easter we had the company of the archons, in a body. Several of them also ate often with us, and we had daily presents of flowers, sometimes perfumed, of pomegranates, oranges and lemons fresh gathered, pastry, and other like articles.
The Turks have few public games, or sports. We were present at a foot race, and a wrestling match, provided by a rich Turk, for the entertainment of his son and other boys, who were about to be circumcised. A train, headed by the vaiwode, and pr
niple men on horses, richly caparisoned, attended by the boys, who were all neatly dressed, their white turbans glitering with tinsel ornaments, to a place without the city, where carpets were spread for them on the ground, in the shade; and a multitude of spectators waited silent and respectful. The race was soon over, and the prizes were distributed; to the winner a sufficient quantity of cloth for an upper garment; to the next a live sheep; to the third a kid; to the fourth a huge water-melon. The company then removed to a level spot, the ruin of the temple of
Jupiter Olympius,
and formed a large circle. The wrestlers were naked, except a pair of close drawers, and were anointed all over with oil.
Some Arabian and black slaves, who had obtained their freedom, and were settled at Athens, had a feast on the performance of the rite of the circumcision. The women danced in a ring with sticks in their hands; and turning in pairs, clashed them over their heads, at intervals, singing wildly to the music. A couple then danced with castanets; and the other swarthy ladies, sitting cross-legged on a sofa, began smoaking.
Athens was anciently enlivened by the choruses singing and dancing in the open air, in the front of the temples of the gods, and round their altars; at the festival of
Bacchus,
and on other holidays. The Greeks are frequently seen, engaged in the same exercise, generally in pairs, especially on the anniversaries of their saints, and often in the areas before their churches. Their common music is a large tabour and pipe; or a lyre and tympanum, or timbrel. Some of their dances, are undoubtedly of remote antiquity. One has been supposed, that which was called the
Crane,
and was said to have been invented by
Theseus;
after her escape from the labyrinth of Crete. The peasants perform it yearly in the street of the French convent, at the conclusion of the vintage; joining hands, and preceeding their mules and asses, which are laden with grapes in panniers, in a very curved and intricate figure; the leader waving a handkerchief, which has been imagined to denote the clew given by
Ariadne.
A grand circular dance, in which the Albanian women join, is exhibited on certain days, near the temple of
Theseus;
the company holding hands, and moving round the musicians, the leader footing and capering until he is tired, when another takes his place. They have also choral dances.
Marriages are commonly announced by loud music, at the house of the bridegroom. A Turk or Greek neither sees nor speaks to the maiden beforehand; but for an account of her person and disposition, relies on his female relations; who have opportunities of seeing her in their visits, and at the bath. The Turk, when terms are adjusted with her family, ratifies the contract before the Cadi, or judge, and her presents. If he be rich, a band of musicians precede a train of peasants, who carry each a sheep, lamb, or kid, with the horns gilded, on their shoulders; and these are followed by servants, with covered baskets on their heads, containing female ornaments, money, and the like, for her use; and by slaves to attend her. Years often intervene, before he requires her to be brought to his home. The streets through which she is to pass, are then left free; and she is conducted to his house, under a large canopy, surrounded by a multitude of women, all wrapped in white, with their faces muffled. If a Turk finds a pair of papouches, or slippers, at the door of his
haram,
it is a sign that a stranger is within, and he modestly retires. That apartment is even a sanctuary for females flying from the officers of justice.
The Papas, or priest, reads a service at the Greek weddings, the two persons standing and holding each a wax taper lighted. A ring and gilded wreath, or crown is used; and, at the end of the ceremony, a little boy, or girl, as previously agreed on, is led to the bride, and kisses her hand. She is then, as it were, enthroned in a chair, and the husband remains at a respectful distance, with his hands crossed, silen and looking at her; until the women enter and take her away, when the men carouse in a separate apartment. Her face and hands are grossly daubed over with paint; and sometimes the corehead and cheeks are bedecked with leaf-gold.
The Albanians convey the bride to the house of her husband, in procession, on horseback, with a chid astride behind her; a loose veil or canopy concealing her head and face; her fingers laden with silver rings, and her hands painted red and blue, in streaks. Their dress is a red jacket, handsomely embroidered, with a coloured turban. The entertainments, on these occasions, consist of a great variety of dishes, chiefly pastry; ranged in summer, under a long low arbour, made with boughs; the company sitting on the ground. When the bride is to be removed to a place at a distance, some women dance before her to the end of the town.
The wife of a Turk, who lived near us, dying, we were alarmed, says
Chandler,
on a sudden, with a terrible shriek of women, and with the loud expostulations of the husband. She was carried to the grave at day-break. The Greeks bury in their churches on a bier. The bones, when room is wanting, are washed with wine, in the presence of the nearest male relation, and then removed. I was present at a funeral entertainment, provided by one of the archons, whose daughter had been recently interred. The procession set out from his house, before sun-rise, headed by a papas, or priest, and some deacons, with lighted candles; the women who were left behind, screaming and howling. One man bore a large wax-taper, painted with flowers, and with the portrait of the deceased in her usual attire, and hung round with a handerchief of her embroidering, in gathers. Two followed, carrying each on their heads, a great dish of parboiled wheat; the surface, blanched almonds, disposed in the figure of a dove, with gilding, and a border of raisins and pomegranate kernels. These, on our arrival at the church, were deposited over the body. The matins ended, with a service appropriated to this ceremony, and read by the priest near the spot. The dishes were then brought round, and each person in his place took a portion, and was afterwards helped in turn to a small glass of white brandy, called
raki,
or of wine. The wax-taper, with the handkerchief, was suspended from the cieling, as a memorial of the girl represented on it; and some peraus, or silver pennies, were distributed to the poor who attended.
The Turks are a people never yet illuminated by science. They are more ignorant than can easily be conceived. The leisure of the Greeks is chiefly employed in reading legendary stories of their saints, translated into the vulgar tongue. This, and their nation, they style
the Romano.
It has a close affinity with the ancient language, which they call the Hellenic; but the grammar and syntax are much corrupted. They speak rapidly, and curtail many of their words, which are farther depraved by incorrect spelling. Their pronuciation differs widely from the English. They have no knowledge of the old quantity of syllables, but adhere to the accents, and compose verses in rhyme, with great facility. I enquired for manuscripts, and was told of some belonging to the monastery of S. Cyriani on mount Hymettus. These were shewn me, with several books printed by
Aldus,
negligently scattered on the floor, in a loft at Athens, where the
Hegumenos,
or Abbot resided.
Credulity and superstition prevail at Athens, and all over the East. The traveller may still hear of Medeas, women possessed of magic power, and expert in various modes of incantation. Amulets, or charms, are commonly worn to repel any malignant influence. Children are seen with crosses, or thin flat bits of gold, called phylacteries, hanging about their necks, or on their foreheads. The Turks inscribe words from the Koran. The Greeks confide in holy water, which is sprinkled yearly on their houses, by a priest, to purify them, and to drive away any daemon, who may have obtained entrance. The insides of several of their churches are covered with representations of the exploits of their saints, painted on the walls; extravagant, ridiculous, and absurd beyond imagination. The old Athenian had a multitude of deities, but relied chiefly on
Minerva;
the modern has a similar troop headed by his favourite Panagéa. He listens with devout humility to fanciful tales of nightly visions, and of miracles vouchsafed on the most trivial occasions. The report is propagated, and if, on examination, the forgery be detected on the spot, the remoter devotee continues in his conviction, and exults in the contemplation of the solid basis, on which he conceives his faith to be founded. In the first year of our residence in the Levant, says
Chandler,
a rumour was current, that a cross of shining light had been seen at Constantinople, pendant in the air over the grand mosque, once a church, dedicated to St.
Sophia;
and that the Turks were in consternation at the prodigy, and had endeavoured in vain to dissipate the vapour. The sign was interpreted to portend the exaltation of the Christians above the Mahometans; and this, many surmised, was speedily to be effected; disgust and jealousy then subsisting between the Russians and the Porte, and the Georgians contending with success against the Turkish armies. By such arts as these are the wretched Greeks preserved from despondency, rouzed to expectation, and consoled beneath the yoke of bondage.
Before we quit Livadia, it may not be amiss to mention Delphos, the modern Castri, which was much resorted to by the ancients on account of the temple of
Apollo,
and the dark cave from whence the Pythian priestess used to deliver her oracles sitting upon a
Tripos.
Delphos, or Delphi, says
Chandler,
was the chief and most illustrious city in Phocis. Its sanctity was deduced through a long succession of ages, from a period involved in fable and obscurity. The influence of its god has controlled the councils of states, directed the course of armies, and decided the fate of kingdoms. The antient history of Greece, is full of his energy, and an early register of his authority.
The oracular power was supposed to reside in a deep cavern, with a small and narrow mouth, said to have been discovered by goatherds, who were inspired by the vapour which arose out of it, and prophesied as from
Apollo.
A lofty tripod, decked with laurels, was placed over the aperture. The Pythia or Priestess, after washing her body, and especially her hair, in the cold water of Castalia, mounted on it to receive the divine effluvia. She wore a crown of laurel, and shook a sacred tree which grew by. Sometimes she chewed the leaves; the frenzy which followed may be attributed to this usage, and the gentle or more violent symptoms to the quantity taken. In one instance, the paroxysm was so violent, that the priests and suppliants ran away, and left her alone to expire, it was believed, of the god. Her part was unpleasant, but if she declined acting, they dragged her by force to the tripod. The habit of her order was that of virgins. The rules enjoined temperance and chastity and prohibited luxury in apparel. The season of enquiry was the spring, after which
Apollo
was supposed to visit the altars of the Hyperboreans. Delphi was conveniently situated for the conflux of votaries lying in the centre of Greece, and, as was then imagined, in the centre of the universe. The god prospered in his business. His servants and priests feasted on the numerous victims, and the riches of his temple were proverbial, even before the wars of Troy.
The enclosure of the temple was of great extent, and filled with treasures, in which many cities had consecrated tenths of spoils taken in war, and with the public donations of renowned states in various ages. It was the grand repository of ancient Greece, in which the labours of the sculptor and statuary, gods, heroes, and illustrious persons were seen collected and arranged; the inequalities of the area or acclivity, contributing to a full display of the noble assemblage.
It was the opinion of
Wheeler,
that no mountain in Greece was higher than Parnassus, on the side of which this city stood; that it was not inferior to Mount Cenis among the Alps; and that, if detached, it would be seen at a greater distance than even Mount Athos. The summits are perpetually increasing, every new fall of snow adding to the perennial heap, while the sun has power only to thaw the superficies.
The water of Castalia, from which the Pythia, and the Poets who versified her answers, were believed to derive a large share of their inspiration, descends through a cliff of Parnassus; the rocks on each side high and steep, ending in two summits; from one of which, the Delphians threw down the famous
Aesop.
By the stream within the cleft, are small broken stairs leading to a cavity in which is water. Close by, at the foot of the eastern precipice, is a bason with steps on the margin, once it is likely the bath used by the Pythia. The water is limpid and exceedingly cold. Returning from the village, says
Chandler,
in the evening, I began to wash my hands in it, but was instantly chilled, and seized with a tremor, which rendered me unable to stand or walk without support. On reaching the monastery, I was wrapped in a garment lined with warm fur, and drinking freely of wine, fell into a most profuse perspiration. This incident, when
Apollo
was dreaded, might have been embellished with a superstitious interpretation Perhaps the Pythia, who bathed in this icy fluid, mistook her shivering for the god.
Adjoining to Parnassus, is Helicon, one of the most fertile and woody mountains in Greece. On it the fruit of the
Arbutus,
or Strawberry-tree, was uncommonly sweet; and the inhabitants affirm, that the plants and roots were all friendly to man; and that even the serpents had their poison weakened by the innoxious qualities of their food.
The muses were the proprietors of Helicon. There was their shady grove and their images; with statues of
Apollo
and
Bacchus,
and
Linus
and
Orpheus,
and the illustrious poets, who had recited their verses to the harp. The vallies of Helicon, are described by
Wheeler,
as green and flowery in the spring, and enlivened by pleasing cascades and streams, and by fountains and wells of clear water. The grove of the muses was plundered under the auspices of
Constantine the Great
The Heliconian goddesses were afterwards consumed in a fire at Constantinople, to which city they had been removed. Their ancient se
t on the mountain is not ascertained.
Narcissus
too is forgotten. The limpid bason in which he gazed, was shewn in the Thespian territory; and the flower into which he was changed, continues to love and adorn its native soil. It abounded in that region, and was very fragrant in the month of April.
Thiva, the ancient Thebes, was the capital of that subdivision of Greece, called Boeotia. The town is not more than three miles in circumference at present, and is inhabited chiefly by Greek christians. Of its ancient grandeur no vestiges remain. It produced several great men, particularly
Pindar, Epaminondas, Pelopidas,
and some say
Hercules
and
Bacchus.
According to the poetic fiction, it was in this city that
Amphion
charmed the stones by the music of his harp, to march and place themselves in the walls.
Of Plataea likewise, situated between Thebes and Athens, where
Pausanias,
who commanded the Lacedemonian army, obtained that signal victory over the Persians, which ruined the ambitious designs of
Xerxes
against Greece; scarce any remains whatever are to be discerned.
CHAP. XXVI.
A Description of the Morea, called Peloponnesus, by the Ancients.
THE Morea, is almost an island, but joins to the continent, or country of Proper Greece, by a narrow neck of land, called the Isthmus of Corinth, so famed for the Isthmian games, celebrated there in honour of
Neptune.
It anciently consisted of the following small kingdoms, Sicyon, Argos and Mycene, Corinth, Proper Achaia, Arcadia and Laconia. Its present name of the Morea, is said to be derived from
Morus,
a Mulberry-tree; either from its resembling the leaf of that tree in shape, or from the great number of mulberry-trees it produces.
The chief rivers in it are, 1. the Carbon, anciently the Alpheus. This river the poets feigned to pass under the Ionian sea, and rose again in Sicily. It rises from the mountain Stymphalus, taking its course through Arcadia, and being joined by the rivers Celadon and Amyrinth, falls into the Ionian sea. 2. Eurotas, which rising in Arcadia, passes through Laconia, or Lacedaemon, and discharges itself in the bay of Colochina. 3. Styx, one of the rivers of Hell, according to poetic fiction, whose waters are so excessive cold, that the drinking of them endangers a man's life. It is to the extraordinary qualities it possesses, of corroding iron and copper, that the old poets have called it the river of Hell. The Morea has not only several mountains, but also many fertile and delightful plains. At the treaty of Carlowitz, the Turks ceded all the Morea to the Venetians, but in the year 1715, again dispossessed them of it. It is divided into four districts.
Saccania or Romania Minor, contains the ancient cities of Corinth, Sicyon and Argos.
Corinth, by the Turks, called Gereme, is a celebrated town at the foot of Acro-Corinth, on which stands a castle, having a most beautiful prospect on every side. The original name of this city was Ephyra, with the addition of Heliopolis, or city of the Sun; and Bimaris, which signifies a place lying between two seats. It was anciently one of the finest cities in all Greece, and abounded in stately buildings; such as temples, palaces, amphitheatres, porticos, monuments, baths, and other works; all ornamented with pillars, cornices, and pedestals, whose singular decorations gave rise to the appellation of the Corinthian order, with numbers of statues by the greatest masters. But its edifices being demolished at present, and the spot on which it stood, filled up with little gardens and fields; it looks much more like a village than a city: and what is still worse, is frequently exposed to the descent of the Corsairs. It is, however, the seat of a Greek archbishop. The Christians here, from some passages in St. Paul's epistles, appear to have been very numerous.
The fertility of the country round Corinth, was alluded to by the witty oracle, which answered a person who enquired, what he should do to become rich; that he needed only to get all the land between Corinth and Sicyon.
The city of Corinth, says
Chandler,
stands on the isthmus, on the side of the Peloponnesus, a situation once peculiarly happy, from which all its ancient prosperity was derived. Its ports were commodiously disposed by nature, to receive the ships of Europe and of Asia, and to render it the centre of their commerce. The circumnavigation of the Peloponnesus, was tedious and uncertain to a proverb; whilst at the isthmus, not only their cargoes, but, if requisite, smaller vessels could be transported from sea to sea. The isthmus, in the narrowest part, was only five miles over. Corinth held the keys of the peninsula, and taxed both the ingress and egress, resembling in some measure in this particular, the citadel at the entrance of the Crimea. The Isthmian games likewise, by the concourse of people at their celebration, contributed to its opulence, which was immense. The temple of
Venus,
possessed above a thousand female slaves consecrated as courtesans. The prodigality of the merchants made the place so expensive, that it was a saying,
not every man could go to Corinth.
The citadel was called one of the horns on which
Philip
was advised to lay hold, in order to secure the heiser, or the Peloponnesus. It has also been styled one of the fetters of Greece.
Various attempts have been made to open a communication between the Ionian and the Aegean sea, by a navigable cut through the isthmus. The project was adopted by
Demetrius Poliorceles,
but his surveyors found the waters in the Corinthian gulf, much higher than on the opposite shore, and were of opinion, that Aegina and the neighbouring islands would be flooded, and the canal be unserviceable. It was revived by
Julius Caesar
and
Caligula. Nero
commenced a fosse from Lechaeum, and advanced about half a mile.
Atticus Herodes
was ambitious of engaging in it; but, as
Nero
had failed, was afraid of offending the emperor by asking his permission. "All those, says
Pausanias,
who have endeavoured to render the Peloponnesus an island, have been prevented while labouring to divide the isthmus. It is manifest where they began digging, and the rock is untouched. As it was made originally, it remains, and is now a continent.—So difficult is it for man to force nature." The vestiges of these fruitless efforts which
Pausanias
saw, in the second century, says
Chandler,
are still extant
In the district of Zachonia or Braccio di Mania, which formerly comprehended Laconia and Arcadia, stands Lacedaemon or Sparta, now named Misitra. It is supposed to have been founded a thousand years before the building of Rome: the form of the city was circular, and its circumference about six miles. Few cities ever attained such a height of military glory. The Spartans received their laws from
Lycurgus;
the two chief magistrates had the title of kings, but were in reality subject to the senate; they were afterwards governed by five magistrates, called the
Ephori,
who were deposed by
Cleomenes,
but, he being subdued by the Macedonians, Laconia became a province to that city.
The modern town of Misitra, is an episcopal see, and consists of four divisions; the town, the castle, and two large suburbs. The town lies at the foot of the castle, and consists of two spacious streets, with several others crossing them at right angles. The old market-place is beautified with a noble fountain, and a church built out of the ruins of
Minerva
's temple. Here are also the ruins of the gallery, or portico, built in memory of the victory obtained over the Persians, at the battle of Plateae, with some remains of the temples of
Helen, Hercules,
and
Venus Armata;
all built of white marble. Without the walls are still to be seen the grove of Plane-trees, where the Spartans held their annual games and exercises.
Of Olympia, situated on the borders of the river Alpheus, scarce any vestiges are to be seen. This place was rendered excessively illustrious in the times of antient Greece, by the power and reputation of its princes; by the oracle and temple of the
Olympian Jupiter;
and by the renown of the Agon, or games, in which to be victorious, was deemed the very summit of human felicity.
The
Jupiter
of Olympia, was accounted sufficient to immortalize its maker
Phidias.
It was of ivory and gold, the head crowned with olive. In the right-hand was a statue of victory; and in the left, a flowered sceptre, composed of various metals, on which was an eagle. The sandals were of gold, as was also the vestment, which was curiously embossed with lilies and animals. The throne was gold, inlaid with ebony and ivory, and studded with jewels, intermixed with paintings and exquisite figures in
relievo.
The image impressed on the spectators an opinion, that it was higher and wider than it really measured. Its magnitude was such, that though the temple was very large, the artist seemed to have erred in the proportions. The god sitting, nearly touched the ceiling with his head; and suggested an idea, that if he were to rise up, he would destroy the roof. A part of the pavement before it was of black marble, inclosed in a rim of Parian or white, where they poured oil to preserve the ivory.
Pasaunias
declares, that a person may see many things wonderful to tell of, among the Greeks; but that the Olympic Agon, or games, with the Eleusinian mysteries, partook in a special manner of the deity. The former grand exhibition was conducted with prodigious solemnity.
From the silence of
Homer,
it has been argued, that the four great spectacles of games in Greece, either did not exist when he wrote, or were in no repute. That of Olympia, however, deduced its origin from remote antiquity, and continued to a late period, undergoing several alterations.
Map of the ISLANDS in the
ARCHIPELAGO.
CHAP. XXVII.
The Islands in Greece, forming part of, or adjoining to, the Cyclades.
THE Grecian islands may be divided according to the seas in which they lie; namely, in the Archipelago, the Mediterranean, and the parts about Candia and the Ionian sea, as it was anciently called.
We shall first treat of the islands in the Archipelago, formerly called the Aegean sea, but receiving its present name from the Greek,
Arkos
chief, and
Pelagos
a sea; it being the longest and principal sea in those parts. This sea separates Europe from Asia to the North and West, washing Romania, Macedonia, and Greece; and to the East, Natolia and Asia Minor. It is interspersed with many large and small islands, comprized by ancient geographers, under two general names. Those which form a kind of circle round Delos, are called
Cyclades. i. e.
the circle islands; but those which lie farther off from Delos, and are scattered all over the Archipelago, they call
Sporades, i. e.
the scattered islands.
Delos, the centre of the Cyclades, is situated in twenty-five degrees East longitude, and thirty-seven degrees North latitude, of an oblong figure, near twice as long as it is broad, and about six miles in circumference. It hath the South part of Mycone on the West; the channel between it and Tinos, on the North; and the island of Rhenia on the East. It is called little Delos, or Zdeli in the plural number, including the island of Rhenia. The reason of its being so celebrated by the ancients was, that this island was held to be the birth-place of
Apollo
and
Diana.
The islands, therefore, about it, sent thither priests, sacrifices, and choirs of virgins, instituting great and public festivals to their two deities. The number of their superstitious Cyclades was at first but twelve, but afterwards comprehended most of the islands in the Aegean sea. Upon the destruction of Corinth, the wealth and trade of that city, seemed to be transferred hither, it being much frequented, from the safety of its harbours, and the convenience of its situation, being in the centre between Europe and Asia; but more especially on account of its immunities and freedom, from customs and impositions. There are still great heaps of ruins on this island, some of which belonged to the temple of
Apollo,
as appears by the trunk of his statue still remaining. This god has been handled so rudely, that they have left him neither hands, feet, nor head; but his locks hanging round his shoulders are still to be seen, having marks in each curl, where apparently jewels had been set; his girdle also appeared to have been richly adorned, and on his left shoulder was a light mantle. The statue was four times larger than life; the shoulders being six feet broad, and the rest of the trunk proportionable. On the declivities of the hills are some very beautiful fragments of porticos and other ancient buildings.
The greater Delos, is separated from the lesser, by a channel about five hundred paces in breadth, and is about eighteen miles in circumference. The mountains are not very high, and afford excellent pasturage: the vallies would produce corn and wine if they were cultivated, but this island, like the other Delos, is entirely deserted; except, that the inhabitants of Mycone send over shepherds with large herds of cattle, which they are frequently obliged to transport back to their own island, to preserve them from the pirates that infest these seas.
Tournfort
relates, that he saw near one hundred and fifty altars among the ruins, which then made a very stately appearance. They were mostly three feet and a half in height, and about three feet in diameter. The harbour of this island is called Port Mastick, from the great number of mastick trees growing near it.
PEOPLE of the ISLE of MYCONE with a GREEK-BOAT.
Most of the inhabitants, are Christians of the Greek church, and have magistrates of their own; but an officer of the Turks comes annually to collect the tribute they are obliged to pay to the Porte. A cadi also frequently visits them, and holds a court in the island, that those who may have any disputes may bring their causes before him to decide; and the Greeks, it seems, are frequently so ridiculous as to come before this tribunal, in preference to submitting their causes to be decided by their own magistrates. There are no less than fifty Greek churches in this island, with several monasteries and a nunnery. The convents of this island, however, are mostly deserted, the people here not appearing very fond of a monastic life.
The island of Naxia or Naxos, lies fifty miles to the South of Mycone, and eight miles East of Paros; it is of an oval form, and nearly an hundred miles in circumference. There is but one town which lies on the South-side of the island, and about forty villages, inhabited by Greek and Latin Christians, of whom the former are most numerous. The prejudices which the Greeks and Latin Christians are scarce to be conceived; the Turks, however, make no distinction between them. On the arrival of the smallest Turkish galliot, the Christians dare not appear without a red cloth upon their head, like the meanest galley slave: but, as soon as the Turks are gone, the Naxian nobility resume their former pride and consequence, covered with their velvet caps, and discoursing of nothing but their families and pedigrees. The ladies are no less vain than the men, and are to be seen returning from the country after the vintage, with a train of thirty or forty females, some mounted on asses, and others on foot; one carrying a pair of stockings, another a towel, a third a dish; and there the ladies wardrobe and furniture is exposed to public view. She, herself, makes her entrance into the city at the head of this cavalcade, whilst the husband brings up the rear. The Naxian nobility remain, for the most part, at their country houses, inviting one another but seldom, and occupying themselves in hunting and other rural diversions. The villages are not very populous, there not being above eight thousand inhabitants in the island: they have, however, two archbishops, one of the Romish, and the other of the Greek church. The capuchins have a convent in Naxia, and apply themselves with great zeal to make proselytes from among the Greeks; for, as to convicting the Mahometans, there is no instance of their attempting to convert any Mussulman to christianity, so severe is the punishment inflicted by the Turks, on those who endeavour to make proselytes among them. The Greek archbishop has a handsome revenue, and the islands of Paros and Antiparos, are within his jurisdiction.
The people here, elect their own governors as in most of the other islands, but are sometimes visited by a Cadi, to whom they may appeal as the last resource. They are also annually visited by an officer to collect the taxes, which amount to ten thousand crowns a year and upwards. The meanest Turkish officer, who comes on the island but occasionally, is in a manner governor, whilst he remains there, and will order whom he pleases to undergo the bastinado. At these times, all the controversies of the islanders, about their quality and precedence, seem to vanish. Every one officiously makes his court to the haughty Turk, and endeavours to insinuate himself into his favour. The common people seem to lead as merry, and as thoughtless lives here, as in other islands: they derive themselves from
Bacchus,
and have plenty of good wine; and if they are slaves, they are the merriest in Europe.
Among their antiquities is still standing a beautiful marble gate, in the midst of a heap of magnificent ruins, upon a rock in the sea, at a small distance from the castle. This is said to have been the palace of
Bacchus;
but
Tournfort
is of, opinion, they are the remains of a temple dedicated to that god. Dia, the highest mountain in the island, which signifies the mountain of
Jupiter,
formerly gave name to the island. Towards the base, on a rough block of marble, is an inscription, signifying that this was the mountain of
Jupiter, the preserver of flocks;
and a grotto is shewn to strangers, where it is pretended the Bacchants celebrated their orgies.
About six or seven miles to the west of Naxia, is the island of Paros, which is about forty miles in circumference. It is famous for its extraordinary white marble, and had also most excellent artists for working it. Those celebrated antiques called the chronicles of Paros, are marble, having Greek inscriptions performed on this island, and bought in the year 1627, by
Thomas Howard,
earl of
Arundel;
who in 1667, made a present of them to the university of Oxford; and they are now called the Arundelian, or Oxonian marbles. The inscription is the most authentic piece of ancient chronology, being made two hundred and sixty-four years before the Christian aera, and contains a space of above three hundred years.
They contain the most remarkable Greek epochs, from the reign of
Cecrops,
who was the founder of the Athenian monarchy, to
Diogenes
the Archon; and it is from this monument we became acquainted with the foundation of the most famous cities in Greece, and are informed when their greatest men flourished.
The town of Parichia seems to stand on the ruins of the ancient Paros, the walks and houses being decorated with several fine marble remains of that city, besides the monuments in the adjacent country. The
panagia,
or
Madonia,
without the city, is both the largest and most splendid church in the Archipelago. In this island, besides a great number of churches and chapels, are several considerable villages. A large fleet may lie conveniently and securely in the harbour of St. Maria, but the common anchoring place for the Turkish navy is Drio, on the west side of the island.
Antiparos, about a mile from Paros, is a flat rock, about sixteen miles in circumference covered in some places with a stratum of vegetable earth, which producs corn enough for about sixty or eighty families, who inhabit a small village about a mile from the sea; there is very little in this island deserving notice, except a very remarkable grotto, about forty fathoms in height, and fifty in breadth; the roof forms an arch embellished with fret-work, and in some places there are bunches of grapes, festoons, &c. of a surprising length, or something resembling; on the right and left are formed several little closets or cabinets; and among other things there is a large pavilion, formed by productions, so exactly representing the roots, branches and heads of cauliflowers, as if nature intended to shew how she operates in the vegetation of stone. All these figures are of white marble, transparent and crystalized, and many of them covered with a white back, which if struck against, sounds like copper. There are also several columns of marble, planted like trunks of trees, on the tuft of a little rock; these stones of marble certainly vegetate, for not a single drop of water ever falls into the place, and if it did, it is not conceivable how a few drops falling from a height of twenty-five or thirty fathoms, should form cylindrical pieces, terminating like round caps.
Adjoining to Paros, is Santorini, or St. Erini. It is eight miles in length, and as much in breadth, and almost covered with pumice-stone, whence the soil in general must be dry and barren; it is however greatly improved by the industry of the inhabitants, who have turned it into a garden. It affords a great deal of barley, plenty of cotton, and large quantities of wine; in which, and their cotton manufactures, their trade consists. Fruit is scarce, except figs, and they have neither oil nor wood. They kill their beeves but once a year, and then they put the flesh in pickle, which in time makes it very hard. The inhabitants are all Greeks, and about ten thousand in number. Pyrgos is the capital town. They have but one spring in the island, which obliges them to preserve the rain-water in cisterns.
Acroteri, adjoining to the above, is an island much talked of in natural history. It appears to be only a pumice-stone incrusted with a fertile earth; and according to the accounts of the ancients, rose in a violent earthquake out of the sea, as a volcano. The same origin had four other islands near Santorini, and the sea here is of such a depth, as not to be fathomed by any sounding-line. The first of these islands rose out of the sea, after a violent earthquake, in the year 906, before the birth of Christ; and in the beginning of the eighth century, a new island suddenly appeared, with a terrible explosion, which shook all the neighbouring islands, and adhered to the former island, which thereby became considerably enlarged: at the same time showers of pumice-stones were cast up to a vast distance on all sides. The second island, which lies a little without the harbour of Santorini, sprung from the sea, in the first century after the Christian aera. In the year 1573, a sudden fire burst out of the sea, and soon produced a new island, to which was given the name of the 'small Burnt island.' In the years 1707 and 1708, a fourth island rose like a volcano, attended with an eruption of fire, concussions, a crash like the loudest thunder, and a noisome smoke, and has been gradually increased by additional rocks.
Cytheria, a small rocky island between Candia and the Morea, is remarkable for nothing, but having been attributed by the Poets to be the birth-place of
Venus,
and of
Helen,
whose
enlévement
by Paris, occasioned the siege of Troy.
Melos, situated likewise in the Archipelago, between Candia and the Morea, but more to the North, is of considerable extent, and said to contain about twenty thousand inhabitants. This island is one hollow spungy rock, which the salt water enters by a great number of subterraneous passages; and, mixing with the sulphur which abounds here, occasions almost continual fires. The hollow rock of Melos, is a kind of natural stone, gently warming the superfices of the earth in most places, and thereby causing it to produce the choicest fruits, particularly grapes, figs, and melons, the best in the Archipelago; so fertile is the soil, that it never lies fallow; one year it produces wheat, another barley; a third, pease and beans, melons, &c. Their fields are like so many gardens, separated from each other by stone walls. For eatables, besides butcher's meat, they have fowl, fish, and game in great plenty. Though they live in a sickly unwholesome air, and upon the surface of a burning lake, as it were, which they may expect every day should break out and destroy them, and their country; they are as merry as Greeks, used formerly to be, and indulge in the good things they thus abundantly possess; neither the sickness, the Turkish tyranny, nor burning caverns in the bowels of the island, can digest the spirits of the merry Meliotes. The inhabitants of Melos are generally seafaring men, and serve as pilots to ships which sail in the Archipelago. The chastity of their women is equal to that of the ladies of some other sea-ports.
Tournfort
says, they are arrant coquets, and use the powder of a sea-plant to give a ruddiness to their complexion; but it soon destroys their skin and spoils their beauty. They wear drawers like the rests of the females in the Levant, which seem a very necessary part of their dress, their petticoats scarce reaching to their knees.
There are two Turkish magistrates in the island, the Cadi, and the Waivode; the one a civil, and the other a military officer; but their principal employ seems to be, to take care that the Sultan is not defrauded of his duties, and to extort as much as they can from the poor Greeks, to fill their own pockets. The Greeks have here, as in the other islands, the privilege of electing their own magistrates, who decide all controversies among them, though sometimes they are so indiscreet as to appeal to the Cadi, and make an infidel their judge.
The modern name of this island, says
Savary,
is Milo or Mile. Anciently it had a town of the same name built by the Phenicians. That maritime people, attracted by the beauty of the port, undoubtedly made it an emporium of their commerce. In early antiquity, this island enjoyed perfect freedom. The Athenians, unable to bring the people of Melos to declare in their favour in the Peloponnesian war, made a descent upon their coasts, and laid all waste before them with fire and sword. Twice did they fail in their enterprize, but returning with more numerous forces, they laid siege to Melos, and having reduced the besieged to surrender at discretion, according to
Strabo,
put to the sword every man capable of bearing arms. They spared only the women and children, whom they carried into captivity. This atrocious action makes us blush for humanity, and dishonours the Athenian name. But war was then carried on with a barbarity of which we have now no example. Republics know not how to pardon, and always carry their vengeance to excess.
Lysander,
the Lacedaemonian general, having in his turn subdued the Athenians, obliged them to recal the colony they had sent to Melos, and restored to the island the wretched remains of its inhabitants.
The island lost its liberty, when the Romans aspiring to the empire of the world, conquered the whole Archipelago. In the partition of that monarchy it fell to the Eastern emperors; was afterwards governed by its own dukes, and finally was conquered by
Solyman
II. Since that period, it has groaned beneath Ottoman despotism, and is completely deprived of its importance.
Tournfort,
says
Savary,
who visited this, island in 1700, gives a delightful description of it. The earth, constantly heated by subterraneous fires, produces, almost without intermission, wheat, barley, cotton, exquisite wines, and delicious melons. S. Elic, the most beautiful monastery in the island, and situated on the highest ground, is surrounded by cedars, and orange, lemon, and fig-trees. The gardens are watered by copious streams. Olive-trees, which are rare in other parts, are very numerous round this monastery, and the adjoining vineyards, furnish excellent wine. In a word, all the productions of the island are of incomparable excellence. Its partridges, quails, kids, and lambs, are in high estimation, yet extremely cheap.
Could
Tournfort,
adds
Savary,
return to Milo, he would no longer find the beauteous isle he has described. He would still see the feathered alum with silver threads, suspended from the roofs of caverns, fragments of pure sulphur filling the crevices of the rocks; numerous mineral springs, hot baths, and the same fires which in his time heated the bosom of the earth, and rendered it so fertile. But, instead of the many thousand Greeks paying the capitation, he would now find, on a surface of eighteen leagues in circumference, only about seven hundred inhabitants. He would sigh to behold the finest parts of the country without cultivation, and fertile vallies changed into morasses. Milo has assumed a very different appearance within the course of the last fifty years. The plague every where propagated by the Turks, has cut off the greatest part of its inhabitants; and the detestable government of the Porte, and the oppressions of the Captain Pacha, have completed its destruction. At present, the want of labourers prevents their giving a free course to the water; which, stagnating in the valleys, turns fetid, and infects the air with putrid exhalations. The salt marshes, which have multiplied for want of care, have produced the same effect. If to their inconveniencies the sulphureous vapours, which arise on every side, are added, it will not be surprising, that the inhabitants of Mile are tormented with violent fevers during three quarters of the year. Nay, possibly, they will be under the necessity of totally abandoning their country. Their complexions are universally of a yellow, pale, and deadly hue; nor is the look of health to be found in any one of them. The prudent traveller should take care to make but a short stay in this unhealthy country, if he would not expose himself to a fever. Only to sleep a single night in the island, nay, even to pass a day there, is sometimes sufficient to contract that disease.
An enlightened government, says the above author, might remove these calamities which have so depopulated Melos. Its first care ought to be, to establish a Lazaretto, and prevent the approach of infected vessels. Canals should then be cut to drain the marshes, from which arise pestiferous exhalations. The island would re-people, for the sulphureous vapours are not what most render it desolate; it produced them equally in the time of the ancients, yet it was extremely populous. To the description, therefore, of the Turkish government, and its detestable politics, must we attribute the destruction of the island of Melos. Let me not be accused, says
Savary,
of painting the Turks in colours blacker than they deserve. I have travelled through their empire, I have seen the injuries of every kind which they have done to the sciences, the arts, and the human race; I see them carrying the plague, from island to island, from country to country, without suffering their eyes to be opened by the example of every other nation; and shall I not raise my voice against the abominable indifference of this barbarous people! Shall I not inveigh against their destructive fatalism, and endeavour to find words sufficiently forcible to paint the crimes and horrors of their government; the enemy of the human species, which has destroyed more men by its odious tyranny, than ever fell by the sword of the most cruel conqueror! At the sight of these melancholy spectacles, my heart groans, and is filled with indignation; my blood boils in my veins, and I could wish to excite all Europe to combine against these Turks, who, descending from the mountains of Armenia, have crushed the nations in their passage, and waded through rivers of blood to the throne of Constantinople. Nor have the beautiful countries they inhabit, been able to soften the ferocity of their character. Power is their law, and justice their sabre.
Adjoining to Melos, is the little island of Argentiera, formerly famous for its silver mines. The soil is extremely dry, and destitute of springs; nor is there any water but what is collected in cisterns, or brought from Melos; the hills, vales, and the whole country stript of trees, do not offer a single shade from the sun. The Venetians, during their war with the Turks, cut down all the olive-trees, and did irreparable damage to the island; nor do the present inhabitants dare to make fresh plantations, lest they should draw on themselves heavier impositions.
Argentiera presents nothing but rocky hills, destitute of verdure, and vallies producing worthless shrubs, and thorny thickets. The vales are generally covered with a white and fat clay, called by the ancients
Terra Cimolia,
(Fuller's earth,) and which the inhabitants employ instead of soap, to wash their linen. This barren soil seems but ill adapted to agriculture; yet the industrious islanders make it produce them a subsistence. They sow barley and wheat in the beginning of autumn, which is the rainy season, and reap in March. Their vineyards on the hill-sides, furnish them with fruit only for the table. They procure their wines from Santorini, Milo, and other islands of the Archipelago. They rear poultry and flocks of goats and sheep, the flesh of which is excellent. The country affords them quails, hares, and partridges in abundance. The women knit cotton stockings, and the men employ themselves in fishing and navigation. Excellent fish are taken round the island, especially the
Roujet,
which is very delicate eating.
The little tribe which inhabits Argentiera, is composed of about five hundred persons. Their enjoyments are not many, but thanks to their industry, they want none of the necessaries of life. This little island does not groan under the immediate oppressions of the officers of the Porte; here are no Agas nor Cadis. The Turks would not venture to reside here, as there is no fort to prevent the Maltese from making them prisoners, whose privateers come hither, from time to time, to spend in feasts, entertainments, and pleasures of every kind, the money they have taken from the Mahometans. This is a tribute they pay to the pretty women of Argentiera. In a word, the Greeks who inhabit this rock would be happy, were the Captain Pacha but to forget them in the annual contributions he levies, frequently with barbarity, on the islands of the Archipelago.
The dress of the Greek women of Argentiera, is, in some particulars, a little whimsical. In France and England, a neat leg and small foot are in high estimation, but the
belles
of Argentiera are of a different opinion; they swell out their legs by wearing several pair of stockings, and appear as if they were booted, which strange kind of ornament they consider as an essential part of dress; and lest it should be lost to the eye their garments do not descend above two inches below the knee. These too are so contrived, as absolutely to spoil their shape, and render it impossible to form any idea of the beautiful proportions with which they were formed by nature. In other respects they are cheerful, lively, and handsome. If it be represented to them, that they disguise by such preposterous ornaments, some of the loveliest of their charms, their answer is, "Our grandmother did so before us; and we do but follow their custom."
Thermia lies to the North-east of Melos; it receives its name from the hot-baths which are in the island. This island is not so mountainous as many others, and the soil being well cultivated, yields plenty of barley, wine, and figs; but wheat and oil are very scarce. It is computed there are about six thousand inhabitants in the island; they have a Greek bishop residing in the city of Thermia, the capital, in which there are fifteen or sixteen churches, and several convents. There are a number of hot springs in this island; the ancient baths were situated in the centre of a valley, the fragments of which are still remaining. On the island are still visible, the ruins of two cities; one of which on the South coast, must have been of extraordinary splendor.
A few miles to the West of Thermia, lies Zia or Ceos. In this island are many remains of antiquity. It is about fifty miles round. Carthea is now the only city remaining; it is situated on the side of a hill, and the flat roofed houses, rising gradually, form a kind of theatre; the roofs of the houses are the only streets there are to walk in. The valley near the town, contains innumerable pieces of broken columns, or pedestals. The first will admit the largest vessels. The ruins of the city of Ioulis, occupy an entire mountain. An ancient temple is still to be seen; the columns of which, have their shafts half plain and half fluted. From this temple, there is a descent from the sea-shore, by a noble marble stair-case; at the foot, is the statue of a woman without arms or head, but the drapery exquisitely fine; it is supposed to be the goddess of Nemesis. In this island likewise, are the remains of a road paved with flat stones, extending three miles in length, and supposed to have been made, when Greece was in its flourishing state. It is said, that this country having formerly been very populous, a law was enacted, if any person lived above sixty years, that it should be lawful to poison him, or put him to death by any other means. And it is said, the natives had such an indifference for life, that they very chearfully resigned it.
Syra is another small island to the East of Zia. The principal city is built round the sides of a little steep hill in the form of a pyramid, at the distance of a mile from the port, where stood the ancient Syros. In this island, the Romish clergy boast of a great superiority in numbers, over those of the Greek communion. The people of this island are also said to be of a character very different from that of their neighbours; being persons of strict piety and honesty, as well as diligence, and improving their manufactures to the utmost.
Andros lies fifty miles North-east of Zia, and is in circumference about an hundred miles; its length, however, is much greater than the breadth. The principal town is situated near the sea, and called the port of the lower castle; its ancient monuments shew it was built on the ruins of some magnificent city; though nothing can be more despicable than the present buildings, considering the materials of which they are constructed. The dress of the women of this island, like that of the other islands, is not very becoming; their petticoats scarce reaching to their knees, and their shifts coming down still lower; they generally wrap themselves up in five or six gowns, and wear large rolls of cloth about their waists like farthingales. The sleeves of their gowns are so very ample, that they reach almost to the ground: on their legs they wear white cloth stockings, with slippers instead of shoes for their feet: a piece of linen is wrapped round their heads, which likewise covers their breasts. The usual garb of the men, is a vest and a red cap; and instead of shoes, they wear pumps, or slippers, a custom very prevalent in the East.
This is one of the most fertile islands in the Archipelago, yielding great plenty of wine, oil, and barley, with some wheat; but their principal riches consist in silk. Their mountains are covered with the arbutu
-trees, from which they distil a spirit, as they do from their mulberries.
On the ruins of the ancient Paleopolis, situated on the brow of a hill near the sea, are seen the fragments of a solid wall, with columns, chapitres, bases, and inscriptions, mentioning the senate and people of Andros, and the priests of
Bacchus.
The trunks of several statues likewise bespeak the hand of some masterly engraver; but the different members have been mutilated by the Turks, who have an utter aversion to images. Near the temple of
Bacchus
was a fountain; which, according to tradition, on certain days, every year flowed with wine instead of water.
Tine, or Tinos, lies about a mile to the South-east of Andros. This island is about sixty miles in circumference; it is well watered, and produces great quantities of corn, wine, and fruit; and particularly silk, of which the inhabitants make stockings and gloves. They dress here in a more decent stile than that of the other islands, following the Venetian fashions: this island having been longer under the dominion of the Venetians than any other in the Archipelago. From the castle, is a noble prospect of the adjacent isles.
CHAP. XXVIII.
Other Islands of the Archipelago.
HAVING now taken a cursory view of those islands, which either make part, or are adjoining to the Cyclades, we propose to treat of the other islands in the Archipelago; most of which, either lie near, or are considered, by many geographers, as belonging to the Asiatic coast, Negropont, and one or two others excepted.
Stalimene, anciently Lemnos, is an island in the North part of the Archipelago, of a quadrangular figure, each side being from five and twenty, to thirty miles in length; and is equally distant from the coasts of Romania, Natolia, and Macedonia. The principal source of wealth in this island, is a mineral earth, called
Terra Lemnia,
which is said to be an excellent medicine for healing wounds, expelling poisons, stopping dysenteries, &c. and a great preservative against infection. It is made up in little bags, and sealed by the Turkish officers; after which, it is permitted to be vended and exported.
The Greeks begin to collect it on the 6th of August. with much superstitious ceremony. There is only one hill which produces it; the surface of the ground being dug up, they easily find the vein, resembling earth cast up by worms; after as much being taken up as the priests approve and put into bags, the ground is covered over as before, and some bags of this earth are sent as presents to the Grand Signior, and the rest sold to the foreign merchants by the Sanjiac, or his deputies. The inhabitants keeping this earth in their houses without his permission, are punished with death.
When the Venetians possessed this island, there were between forty and fifty towns and villages upon it, and the island was well inhabited, but at present it is very thinly peopled. It was upon this island that the poets feign
Vulcan
to have fallen, when kicked out of Paradise by
Juno,
for his deformity; and that being lamed in his fall, he was called
Lemnius,
and worshipped by the people of the island as a decrepid deity.
The island Tenedos, which lies between Lemnos and the continent of Asia, is chiefly rock, but fertile. It was anciently reckoned about ten miles in circumference. Its position near the mouth of the Hellepont, has given it importance in all ages; vessels bound towards Constantinople finding shelter in its port, or safe anchorage in the road, during the Etesian winds, and in foul weather. The emperor
Justinian,
erected a magazine, to receive the cargoes of the corn-ships from Alexandria, when detained there. This building was two hundred and eighty feet long, ninety broad, and very lofty. The voyage from Egypt was rendered less precarious, and the grain preserved, until it could be transported to the capital. Afterwards, during the troubles of the Greek empire, Tenedos experienced a variety of fortunes. The pirates, which infested these seas, made it for many years their place of rendezvous; and
Othman
seized it in 1302, procured vessels, and from thence subdued the other islands of the Archipelago.
The port of Tenedos has been inclosed in a mole, of which no part appears above water, but loose stones are piled on the foundations to break the waves. The bason is encompassed by a ridge of the mountain. On the South-side is a row of wind-mills, and a small fort; and on the opposite, a castle by the shore. The houses, which are numerous, stand at the foot, or on the slope of an acclivity; with a flat between them and the sea, formed partly by soil washed down from above. They reckon six hundred Turkish, and three hundred Greek families. The church belonging to the latter, is decent.
We found here but few remains of antiquity, says
Chandler,
worthy notice. We perceived on our landing, a large and entire Sarcophagus, or stone coffin, serving as a fountain; the top stone, or lid, being perforated to admit a current of water, which supplies the vent below; and on one side is an inscription. Near this was part of a fluted column, converted into a mortar for bruising corn; and in a shop was a remnant of tessellated pavement then recently discovered. In the streets, the walls and burying grounds, were pieces of marble, and fragments of pillars, with a few inscriptions.
In the evening, this being Sunday, and a festival, we were much amused with seeing the Greeks, who were singing and dancing, in several companies, to music, near the town; while their women were sitting in groups, on the roofs of the houses, which are flat, as spectators; at the same time enjoying the soft air and serene sky.
We were lodged much to our satisfaction in a large room, with a raised floor matted, in which we slept in our clothes, in company with two Jews and several Greeks; a cool breeze entering all night at the latticed windows, and sweetening our repose.
In these countries, on account of the heat, it is usual to rise with the dawn. About day-break, we received from the French consul, a Greek, with a respectable beard, a present of grapes, the clusters large and rich, with other fruits, all fresh gathered. We had besides, bread and coffee for breakfast, and good wines, particularly one sort, of an exquisite flavour, called Muscadell. The island is deservedly famous for the species of wine which produces this delicious liquor.
Mitylene, anciently Lesbos, situated a few leagues from Elca, in Lesser Asia, is of considerable extent, and though some part is mountainous and barren, it has many fruitful plains, which produce plenty of corn. The chief town is Castro, anciently Mitylene, having a strong garrison to protect the island against the pyrates, which infest very much these seas. In this island are said to be upwards of a hundred villages. It has given birth to, and been the residence of, some of the greatest men of antiquity.
Theophrastus,
and
Phanios,
disciples of
Aristotle,
were natives of this island. The famous
Arion,
also was born here; whose skill in music charmed the Dolphins, so that they carried him safe to the shore.
Epicurus
read lectures at Mitylene, and
Aristotle
resided there for many years. Though few islands indeed have produced men of greater genius, yet all their grave lectures it seems could not reform their morals; it being a proverb in Greece, when speaking of a profligate fellow, to say,
he lived like a Lesbian.
In this island there still subsists two very singular institutions. The first is, that all estates, both real and personal, descend to the eldest daughters; whereby all the males, and the younger children of the female line are disinherited. This custom is of very ancient date, and is said to have been consented to by the males, out of love to their sisters, and to procure better establishments for them. The Mytylenians, says
Guys,
informed me, that the men would have no difficulty in getting their right of inheritance restored, if they chose to claim the benefit of the Turkish law, which admits the children of both sexes to an equal share in the parents fortune. But the man, who should attempt to promote his interest by an appeal to a foreign power, would for ever appear infamous in the eyes of his countrymen.
The other is, that in a small town, about three days journey from the capital, every stranger, upon his arrival, is compelled to marry one of the women; even though his stay should be for a night only. They generally present a maiden to him, whom he must absolutely espouse. Or, if he should prove to be a man of great property or importance, several females are presented, and he has the selection of one of them. Travellers of inferior rank have no choice, but must accept the lady offered to them; who, in that case, is generally the oldest and plainest in the district. A priest then appears, who performs the marriage ceremonies with great solemnity; a nuptial feast is prepared; and the new married couple pass the night together. The husband may, if he pleases, depart the next morning. If he has any money, or valuable effects, and chuses to make his ephemeral wife a present, it is received, and indeed expected. But if he should not, he may still proproceed upon his journey without molestation. The lady thinks herself sufficiently obliged to him, for having delivered her from the reproach of virginity; which it is ignominious either to retain, or even to surrender to a Mitylenian. The preservation of the lady's honour depends upon her being first married to a stranger. It is of no consequence whether he remains with her, or ever returns. At the expiration of a year, she may contract a new marriage with any man that presents himself; and should the former husband appear, he would have no legal claim whatever upon account of his previous marriage. The first is, that a woman cannot marry to advantage, until she has had intercourse with a stranger. This custom is said to be of most ancient date, and the only alteration the teachers of the Christian religion have been able to effect is, that the cohabitation shall be preceded by a marriage according to the forms of the church now established there. By this compromise, the priest, the bride, and all parties quiet the scruples of their conscience.
The island Chios, now Scio, is by
Strabo
reckoned one hundred and twelve miles and an half in circuit; and about fifty miles from the island Mitylene. The principal mountain, called anciently Pelinaeus, presents to view a long lofty range of bare rocks, reflecting the sun; but the recesses at its feet, are diligently cultivated, and reward the husbandman by their rich produce. The slopes are clothed with rich vines. The groves of lemon, orange, and citron trees, regularly planted, at once perfume the air with the odour of their blossoms, and delight the eye with their golden fruit. Myrtles and jessamines are interspersed, with olive and palm-trees, and cypresses. Amid these, the tall minarets rise, and white houses glitter, dazzling the beholder.
Scio shared in the calamities which attended the destruction of the Greek empire. In the year 1093, when robbers and pirates were in possession of several considerable places;
Trachas,
a Turkish malecontent, took the city. In 1306, this was one of the islands which suffered from the exactions of the Grand Duke
Roger,
general of the Roman armies. The city was then seized by the Turks, who came before it with thirty ships, and put the inhabitants to the sword. In 1346, the Genoese took the city, and kept in possession of Scio about 240 years. They were deprived of it by the Turks, in 1566, but the Chiotes in general, were still indulged with numerous and extraordinary privileges. They consisted of two parties, differing in their religious tenets; one of the Greek persuasion, which acknowledges the patriarch of Constantinople as their head; the other of the Latin or papists, which enjoyed a free toleration under the Turks, their priests celebrating mass as in Christendom, bearing the sacrament to the sick, going in solemn procession, habited, beneath canopies, with censors in their hands, to the year 1694. The Venetians then attacked and took the castle, but afterwards abandoned it on a defeat of their fleets. The Latins, who had assisted them, dreading the punishment which their ingratitude deserved, fled, with their families and the bishop, and settled in the Morea. The Turks seized the churches, abolished the Genoese dress, and imposed on their vassals badges of their subjection; obliging them, among other articles, to alight from their horses at the city gates, and at the approach of any, even the meanest, Mussulman.
GRECIAN ISLANDERS
The beautiful Greek girls are the most striking ornaments of Scio. Many of these were sitting at the doors and windows, twisting cotton or silk, or employed in spinning, or needle-work, and accosted us with familiarity, bidding us welcome as we passed. The streets on Sundays and holidays are filled with them in groups. They wear short petticoats, reaching only to their knees, with white silk or cotton hose. Their head-dress, which is peculiar to the island, is a kind of turban, the linen so white and thin, it seemed to be snow. Their slippers are chiefly yellow, with a knot of red fringe at the heel. Some wore them fastened with a thong. Their garments were of various colours; and their whole appearance so fantastic and lively, as to afford us much entertainment. [See the plate, which exhibits the dress of the females of Scio, Naxos, and Mitylene.] The Turks inhabit a separate quarter, and their women are concealed.
We returned to the ship at night, says
Chandler,
the Dragoman and Chiote lighting us with long paper lanthorns, to the boat, which waited at the beach. A great number of ghaunt dogs were collected by the shambles, which are at the outskirts of the town. They barked furiously at us, but were chid and repelled by our guides, whose language they understood. The public, we are told, maintains them; and they assemble when all is quiet. It is observable, that these animals were of old a like nuisance, being the Lemures of the ancients, who used to pacify them with food. The Arcadians in particular were accustomed to carry bread from their table, on account of the nightly terrors, or the dogs, which they expected to assail them in the streets.
Prosperity is less friendly to antiquity, than desertion and depopulation. We saw here no stadium, theatre, or odeum; but so illustrious a city, with a marble quarry near it, could not be destitute of those necessary structures, and perhaps some traces might be discovered about the hills of the Acropolis. A few bas-reliefs and marble, are fixed in the walls, and over the gate-ways of the houses. We found by the sea-side, near the town, three stones with inscriptions, which had been brought for ballast, from the continent of Asia. The Chiote, our attendant, was vociferous in his enquiries, to little purpose. We were more than once desired to look at a Genoese coat of arms for a piece of ancient sculpture, and a date in modern Greek for an old inscription.
The most curious remain is, that which without reason has been named,
The School of Homer.
It is on the coast, at some distance from the city, northward, and appears to have been an open temple of
Cybele,
formed on the top of a rock. The shape is oval, and in the centre is the image of the goddess, the head and an arm wanting. She is represented as usual, sitting. The chair has a lion carved on each side, and on the back. The area is bounded by a low ruin or seat, and about five yards over. The whole is hewn out of the mountain, is rude, and indistinct; and probably of the most remote antiquity.
The wines of Scio have been celebrated as aiding digestion, as nutritious and pleasant. They were much esteemed by the Romans.
Hortensius
hoarded them; and
Caesar,
who was as generous as magnificent, dispensed them freely to the people at his triumphs and sacrifices. It is related, that the culture of the vine was introduced by a son of
Bacchus,
called
Oenopion,
or,
The Wine-drinker,
whose sepulchre remained here in the second century; and that red wine, with the making of these liquors, was invented by the Chians. A rugged tract named Arvisia, was particularly famous for its produce, which has been extolled as ambrosial, and stiled a new nectar. We were treated with a variety of choice specimens, and it may be questioned if either the flavour, or qualities once so commended, be at all impaired.
To the peculiar possession of the Arvisian wine, no longer talked of, has succeeded the profitable culture of the Lentiscus, or mastic tree. This employs, as we were told, twenty-one villages; which are required to provide as many thousand okes of gum annually, for the use of the seraglio, at Constantinople. They procure it by boring the trunk with a small sharp iron, in the summer-months. In October their harvest is conveyed with music into the city, and lodged in the castle. The cadi, and officers who attend while it is weighed, have each a certain portion for their perquisite. The remainder is delivered to the farmer, or planter, to be disposed of for his own advantage. The Greeks of these villages have a separate governor, and enjoy many privileges. In particular they are allowed to wear a turban of white linen, and their churches have each a bell to call them to prayers, an indulgence of which they speak with much glee. The Asiatic ladies are excessively fond of this gum, which they chew greedily, believing it good for the breath, and attributing to it various other excellent qualities.
Negropont, the ancient Eubaea, on the opposite coast, is the largest island in the Archipelago. It is ninety miles long, and about twenty broad. On the south-west side of the island the strait is so narrow, that it is joined to the continent of Attica, by a bridge. The walls of the town are two miles in circumference, and the suburbs where the Christians inhabit, are extensive. The Captain Bashaw, or Admiral of the Turkish fleet, is the viceroy of this island, and the adjacent parts of Greece; where he has a deputy, and a fleet of gallies generally lie in the port. What is very singular in this island, is the irregularity of the tides in the Euripus; the strait which separates this island from the continent of Attica.
The tides are regular from the last three days of the old moon, to the eighth of the new; the ninth day they become irregular, and continue so to the thirteenth; the fourteenth they are regular again, and continue thus to the twenty-first; when they become irregular again, until the twenty-seventh. When they are irregular, they flow twelve, thirteen, or fourteen times, and ebb as often in the four and twenty hours. When the tides are regular, they observe the same rule according to the moon, as the tides in the ocean. But there is this difference at all times between the tides of the Euripus, and those of the ocean; that the tides of the Euripus never rise above a foot, whereas those of the ocean, in some places, rise twenty-four feet, in others not more than one foot. Between the ebbing and flowing of the Euripus, is a small space, where the water seems to stand still, which it is not observed to do in the ocean.
CHAP. XXIX.
Rhodes.
THIS famous island is situated between the thirty-sixth and thirty-seventh degrees of Northern latitude, about sixty miles North-east of the island of Candia, two hundred and fifty to the West of Cyprus, and about twenty miles South-west of the continent of Asia Minor.
On our approach to this island, by the narrow strait that separates it from the continent of Asia Minor, a new scene, says
Savary,
presented itself to our view: an innumerable multitude of swans and cranes, sailing on the waters, and ranged in files, like soldiers in order of battle. Each of these files were upwards of a quarter of a league in length, and we counted thirty of them all swimming in a similar direction. The head of this army terminated in a point, and resembled the prow of a ship. They all kept their posts, notwithstanding the motion of the waves, with which they alternately rose and fell; their plumage, of a dazzling white, formed an admirable contrast with the transparent greenness of the waters. Farther on, we discerned another troop, disposed in the same manner, all having their heads turned towards Africa, to which they steered in concert.
These birds, at the approach of winter, fly the snows and ice in the North, to seek a milder climate. They first arrive at the Black Sea, where they remain for a time; and when the cold begins to increase too much there, again take their departure with a northerly wind, traverse Asia Minor, and rest a while on the shores of the Mediterranean. They afterwards pass this sea, partly by swimming, and partly by flying. In this manner they reach the coasts of Africa, and especially Egypt; where the great lakes Menzala, and Buelos, furnish them abundant food. There they remain all winter; but the storks, which appear to be fond of a still warmer climate, quit these lakes in November, proceed towards the Said, and end their journey at the lake Maeris, and the canal of Joseph. They free the country from innumerable frogs, insects, and reptiles, which abound in the marshes. Such is the regular progress of these birds. On a signal given from their leaders, these winged navigators rise in the air, and fly all together, directing their course towards the South. To cleave this element with more facility, they range themselves in the form of a triangle, the vertex of which is a very acute angle. What wisdom is displayed in the actions of creatures which to us seem destitute of reason! Fortunate, perhaps, in not possessing that faculty so frequently abused by man; they do not counter-act the views of nature, and enjoy, without alloy, that portion of happiness assigned them by the Creator.
Rhodes is about fifty miles in length, from North to South, and nearly half as much in breadth. Ancient historians assert, that it was called by the Greeks, Rhodes, from the great quantity of roses produced in it; Rhodes, signifying in that language, a rose. The poets feign it to have received its name from
Rhoda,
one of the daughters of
Apollo,
by
Venus.
Several authors assert, that this island was formerly covered by the sea; and that it raised its humid head above the waters, and became an island; but they do not fix the time of this event, which is lost in the obscurity of ages: tradition however has preserved the memory of the fact, and the gravest writers of antiquity have admitted it as certain. Delos and Rhodes, says
Pliny,
those celebrated islands, arose out of the sea. Ancient annals assert, says
Pindar
likewise, in one of his odes, that at the time when
Jupiter
and the immortals divided the earth, Rhodes had not yet appeared in the midst of the sea; but was still concealed in the profound abysses of the ocean.
Philo
attributes this event to the diminution of the waters of the sea; and, were this opinion well-founded, most of the islands of the Archipelago, being lower than Rhodes, must have had the same origin.
It is much more reasonable to imagine, says
Savary,
that volcanic fires, (such as in the fourth year of the one hundred and thirty-fifth Olympiad, threw up from the abysses of the ocean, Theracia, and Thera, the modern Santorin, and which, in our time, have raised above the waters, seven little islands near them) gave birth, in the remote ages of antiquity, to Rhodes.
In its center is a high mountain, which commands the whole island. It is called Artemira, and I imagine it to be the Mount Atabyris, says
Savory,
of
Strabo.
On it formerly was a temple of
Jupiter,
now no longer in existence; but its place is supplied by a small chapel, to which the Greeks make pilgrimages. Mount Artemira is very steep, so that it is impossible to ascend it on horseback; and on foot it takes four hours to reach the top. When there, we enjoy a most magnificent prospect. On the edge of the horizon, towards the North-east, we discover the summits of Mount Cragus; to the North, the high coast of Caramania; to the North-west, the small islands of the Archipelago, which appear like luminous points; to the South-west, the summit of Mount Ida, capped with clouds; and to the South, and South-east, the vast expanse of waters which bathe the coasts of Africa. This extensive prospect varies every instant, as it is more or less illumined by the rays of the sun; and exhibits a moving scenery, which astonishes and delights the beholder. After contemplating this grand picture, the eye looks down with pleasure on the island, which rounds itself beneath our feet; and here and there we perceive, on the tops of the most lofty hills, ancient pines planted by nature, that in ages past formed thick forests, which the Rhodians carefully preserved for their navy. At present these trees are not very numerous, as the Turks make use of them to build the Grand Signior's caravelles, and cut down without ever planting. Their solitary shades are at present the retreats of wild asses, which are remarkable for their surprising swiftness.
Beyond these first heights we meet with various amphitheatres of eminences, which become gradually lower, till we reach the sea. The hills in general are covered with thorns, or brambles; but on some of them we find vineyards, which still produce the perfumed wine in such request among the ancients. This wine is very pleasant to the taste, and leaves an exquisite flavour in the mouth. The Rhodians added the luxury of drinking it out of voluptuous cups. It would be easy to multiply these vines, and cover with them hills of a great extent, which are now lying without cultivation.
On the shady summit of Mount Artemira, a great number of springs arise, which fertilize the plains and vallies. Around the villages, we find a few cultivated spots, and orchards; where the fig, pomegranate, and orange-tree, though planted without regularity or taste, afford pleasing shades. The peach-trees, which in the time of
Pliny
produced no fruit at Rhodes, are at present very fruitful; but the peaches they bear have neither the flavour nor the delicious juice of ours, as in this country they knew nothing of the art of grafting. The palm flourishes here, as in the days of
Theophrastus,
but produces no fruit. There seems to be a certain line drawn by nature for each species of tree, beyond which some will not grow at all, and others become barren.
In passing over the island, we traverse, with regret, beautiful vallies, without finding so much as a village, a cottage, or even the smallest traces of cultivation. The bottoms of the rocks are covered with wild roses. Myrtles in flower perfume the air with their delicious emanations; and tufts of the laurel-rose adorn the banks of rivulets, with their beautiful flowers. The inhabitants suffer the earth to nourish an infinity of useless plants, without endeavouring to direct, or profit, by its fecundity.
This island enjoys the happiest temperature imaginable, and its air is pure and salubrious. No epidemical disorders are known, but what are imported from other countries. The westerly winds, which prevail for nine months in the year, moderate the heats of summer; and in the winter, ice, snow, and even hoar-frost are unknown. In the dullest day the sun disperses the clouds, and shews himself, at least, for some hours; through the whole year he enlightens the island with his beneficent rays, fertilizes the earth, and purifies the air, which is naturally humid.
"Tiberius"
says
Suctonius,
"made a stay for some time at Rhodes, so enchanted was he with the beauty and salubrious climate of the island."
Ancient Rhodes seems to have surpassed all the cities of the world, in beauty and magnificence.
Strabo,
who had travelled through several countries, and had seen Rome, Alexandria, Memphis, and the most celebrated cities of Asia, preferred Rhodes to any of them. "The beauty," says he, "of its harbours, streets and walls, and the magnificence of its monuments, render it so much superior to all other cities, as to admit of no comparison."
Aristides
likewise adds, "Within the walls of Rhodes, we never saw a small house by the side of a large one. All were of the same height, and the same order of architecture; so that the whole city seemed but one single edifice. Wide streets crossed it from side to side; and these so well disposed, that from whatever part it was viewed, the prospect was truly magnificent. The walls and towers of a wonderful extent, height, and beauty, above all, excited our wonder. The lofty summits of the latter, served as a pharos to mariners. Such indeed was the magnificence of Rhodes, that without having seen it, the imagination cannot possibly form any conception of its grandeur. All the parts of this immense town, mutually connected with each other, and most beautifully proportioned, formed a perfect whole, of which the walls were the defence and ornament. Rhodes was the only city, of which it might be said, it was fortified like a place of war, and decorated like a palace."
To this description we must add superb temples, whose porticos were enriched with paintings of the first masters; a multitude of colossuses, and statues of astonishing workmanship; a magnificent theatre, extensive arsenals, and fleets arriving from every part of the world, to pay the tribute due to the arts, from wealth.
Pliny,
after enumerating the most famous colossal statues of antiquity, adds, "But none of these are to be compared to that which the Rhodians dedicated to the sun. This Colossus was the work of
Chares,
a pupil of
Lysippus.
It was seventy cubits high, (about one hundred and five feet) and was thrown down by an earthquake, fifty-six years after it was first erected. In this state its appearance is still astonishing. Few men are able to grasp the thumb; and its fingers are larger than entire statues usually are: where it has been broken, we may discover, within-side, deep cavities filled with enormous stones, which the artist had introduced, to render it firm on its base. It is said to have been the labour of twelve years, and that it cost three hundred talents; a sum which the Rhodians had gained, by the sale of the warlike machines left by
Demetrius,
before their walls, when he raised the siege. This city contains an hundred other colossal statues, less indeed than this, but each of them superb enough to render any city illustrious, where they were erected. To these are to be added, five gigantic statues of the gods, the invaluable works of
Bryaxis.
Some modern historians, wishing to add something to the marvellous, have pretended the feet rested on two rocks, at the entrance of the harbour; and that vessels passed with all their sails set, between its legs. This fable deserves no regard, since it is contradicted by the silence of antiquity. On the contrary, historians who mention the fall of the Colossus, as well as those who saw it, testify that it was lying on the ground.
Strabo
says, "The Colossus of Rhodes, overthrown by a violent earthquake, and at present lying on the ground, has its knees broken. The Rhodians are forbidden, by an oracle, from raising it up. This colossal statue, the most beautiful ever consecrated to the gods by man, is placed among the seven wonders of the world." Had it been situated at the entrance of the harbour, it must have fallen into the sea, says
Savary;
which circumstance they would not have omitted. It was still in its fallen state, in the days of
Pliny;
as it likewise was, till the reign of the Emperor
Constans;
when
Moawiah,
general of the Caliph
Othman,
taking Rhodes, destroyed this statue; which had well deserved to be enumerated among the seven wonders of the world. He sold it to a Jew, who conveyed its fragments to Emesa, on nine hundred camels, nine hundred and thirty-two years after it was first erected.
Constantine Porphyrogenetus
says it was sold to a Jew at Edessa, and increases prodigiously the number of camels, which carried off its fragments, making them amount to thirty thousand.
The arts seemed to vie with each other, to contribute to the embellishment of Rhodes. Painting likewise disputed the palm with sculpture. The temples contained a multitude of admirable works, among which, says
Strabo,
"two pictures of
Protogenes
were particularly admired; the one representing
Jalysas,
and the other a satyr, standing upon a column, with a partridge at his feet. The latter picture, being exposed to public view, the bird attracted universal admiration; so that the satyr, in the finishing of which the artist had employed his utmost attention and abilities, was almost entirely disregarded. The wonder and applause of the spectators was still more increased, when, on bringing some partridges before the picture, they began to call, as soon as they perceived the painted bird; to the great delight of the multitude.
Protogenes
was so mortified at the preference given to what be intended merely as an ornament, that he requested permission, from, the prefect of the temple, to efface the partridge, and actually did efface it."
Pliny
thus describes the picture of
Jalysus,
mentioned by
Strabo.
"The most beautiful of the works of
Protogenes,
is the picture of
Jalysus,
which is still to be seen in the temple of Peace, at Rome. To secure it, if possible, against the injuries of time, the painter placed four layers of colours one over the other, hoping that if the upper ones should decay, the lower would still remain. In this picture we see a dog exquisitely painted; chance having conspired with art to render it perfect. The painter, after finishing every part of the animal, and having surmounted every difficulty, was so far satisfied with his work; but one thing still remained, which he despaired of being able perfectly to express; this was the froth which whitens the mouth of a dog when panting; to represent this defied his utmost art, and in every attempt he only seemed to depart further from nature. The foam appeared always painted, and never natural. He was the more mortified, as he was never satisfied, with any thing less than what might be mistaken for nature itself. Often did he efface his colours, and as often change his brushes, without success. Irritated at the impotence of his art, he peevishly threw his spunge against the picture, which, by accident, struck the mouth of the dog, and disposed the colours more happily than his utmost skill had been able to effect, chance for once happily imitating nature."
Protogenes,
and
Apelles,
his cotemporary, imitated nature so perfectly, that their pictures seemed living and animated beings. Let it not be imagined, however, that the artist born with the happiest talents, can ever attain this high degree of perfection, without prodigious efforts. Genius must be seconded by the most persevering labour, and a profound knowledge of every science allied to his art.
Protogenes
was seven years in finishing the picture of
Jalysus;
and, if
Pliny
may be credited, during the whole time lived entirely on lupins, lest by too much indulging his appetite, he should obstruct the activity of his mind.
Do not imagine that Rhodes contained only a small number of excellent paintings. The porticos of its temples were decorated with pictures of infinite value. "The possession of one only of these immortal works", says
Aristides,
"would have sufficed to render any city illustrious."
The sciences and literature ever go hand in hand with the fine arts. For the cultivation of these also were the Rhodians distinguished. Their schools attained so high a degree of celebrity, that they were resorted to by some of the greatest men of Rome; among whom were
Cato, Marcus Brutus, Cicero, Cassius, Caesar,
and
Pompey.
To what must we attribute the flourishing state of the Rhodian republic? To the fertility of the soil, the beauty of the climate, or the excellent situation of the island? These advantages no doubt contributed to, but were not the efficient cause of, the wealth of the Rhodians, which was owing to the goodness of their laws, and the wisdom of their government, the only solid foundations of the glory of empires. "We cannot too much admire", says
Strabo,
"the care with which the Rhodians preserve their excellent code of laws, and the wisdom conspicuous in the whole constitution of their republic, and especially in the management of their navy. This has long preserved to them the empire of the sea, which they have freed from pirates, and has secured to them the friendship of the Romans."
Rhodes was the emporium of every trading nation. The mariner who touched there, says
Aristides,
"beheld with astonishment several harbours, formed by art, of piers of stone, which advanced far into the sea. One of these received the vessels from Ionia; another those from Caria. Here a mole offered shelter to the fleets from Egypt, Cyprus, and Phoenicia, as if expressly formed for each respective city. Near to the ports, arsenals reared their lofty heads, and astonished the beholder with their magnificence."
The Rhodians were worthy to inhabit this city. Their morals were mild and amiable, and their manners polished without affectation. When they appeared in public, they were remarkable for the gravity of their deportment. They were not seen loitering in the streets, but seriously reproved foreigners whom they saw strolling about in inconsiderate idleness. At their tables, civility and urbanity presided; and all excess was banished. They conversed in a free and friendly manner with their guests, and never mortified them by assuming airs of importance. "These are the virtues", says
Aristides,
"which render your city so renowned. These raise you above every other nation, and attract the love and admiration of every people. Your ancient and truly Grecian manners render you far more illustrious than your ports, your walls, or your arsenals."
Such a people could not but be humane. As for myself, says
Savary,
I doubt, whether men possess a right to put other men to death, though guilty of enormous crimes. The Rhodians, however, spared their fellow-citizens, the horror of these bloody tragedies, which dishonour our cities. Far from preparing scaffolds in public places; far from hiring despicable mercenaries to publish in the streets sentences which condemn unhappy wretches to the flames, or to the wheel; the law prohibited any executioner from entering Rhodes. Even the sentence of death was pronounced without the walls of the city. And they would have considered it as impiety, to stain their streets with human blood.
Ancient writers nevertheless, particularly
Athenaeus,
reproach the Rhodians with vices inseparable from great wealth, luxury, and voluptuousness. "They build", likewise, says
Stratonicus,
"as if they were immortal, and serve their tables with as much profusion, as if they had but a few days to live." The vessels they made use of in their repasts, were of an exquisite invention, and greatly renowned for the pleasure they gave in drinking. In their composition they employed myrrh, the flower of an odoriferous reed, saffron, balm, amoma, and cinamon baked together.
Anacreon
reciting the number of his mistresses says, "for Rhodes, write down two thousand." And we find the ancients call it the city of gallantry.
The government of Rhodes was always republican. At first the supreme power was lodged with the people. The nobles afterwards got possession of it, and formed an aristocracy. But they did not abuse their power. Humanity led them to succour their fellow-citizens. They took care to prevent that wretchedness which is so destructive to population; and created magistrates, whose sole employment was to prevent, or relieve, the necessities of the poor; to provide these with wholesome food, and employ them in the public works. This excellent regulation secured tranquility to the state, which never experienced those violent convulsions that at length overthrew Athens and Rome.
It was against this city, according to
Diodorus Siculus,
that
Demetrius
advanced his moving citadel of wood, plated with iron, to batter down its walls. This edifice, called the Helepolis, was of a prodigious size; it had nine stories, and might be moved every way. Catapultas were employed against the walls, which threw prodigious stones, and beams of an immense size, headed with iron; while battering rams, two hundred feet in length, and worked by a thousand men at once, were shaking them with repeated strokes. A multitude of archers, placed on the top of the moving tower, showered down their arrows on the besieged. Thirty thousand soldiers were employed to put the Helepolis in motion. The courage of a free people, however, triumphed over the fleets of
Demetrius,
the numerous army he had in pay, and all the military talents this great captain displayed, during a whole year, in his various attacks.
In fine, ever observant of their laws, and careful to maintain the commerce, to which they owed their power, they remained independent till the reign of
Vespasian,
who first reduced this island to a Roman province. The power and riches of the inhabitants then disappeared; and since that time, Rhodes, like Candia, has been only one of the fine islands of the Archipelago.
The modern town, built on the ruins of the ancient city, occupies only a quarter of its extent, and possesses no remarkable antiquities. Not even the smallest remains of the theatres, temples, and porticos, are to be discovered. Statues, colossuses, paintings, all have been carried off. To wide and skilfully disposed streets; to those regularly ranged edifices, where each front presented the same order of architecture, have succeeded narrow and winding lanes, and houses without taste, regularity, or decoration. Were a Rhodian, of the days of
Alexander,
to revisit his native city, he would find himself absolutely a stranger, he would not recollect the smallest monument, but must imagine himself transported into a country inhabited by barbarians.
The knights of Rhodes, have left various traces of their residence in the island. Their armorial ensigns, and some busts of the grand masters, sculptured in relief on marble, decorate the front of several buildings. The walls and towers they erected, still subsist, and bear the glorious mark of an obstinate defence. The church of St.
John
has been converted into a mosque. The vast hospital, in which Christian charity received the faithful from all parts of the world, and furnished them with succours, at this day serves as a granary for the Turks. The barbarians suffer it to go to ruin, as well as the government-house, in which we find antique marbles and columns.
Rhodes has only two harbours. The smallest faces the East, and is called Darca. Rocks at a small distance from each other, in the front, block the entrance, and only leave room for one vessel to pass. Moles raised on each side defend it from every wind. The Turks, who since the conquest of the island, have not removed from it a single grain of sand, suffer it gradually to choak up. There is only water enough for merchant ships, and even these are obliged to unload a part of their cargo before they can enter it. Ships go thither to careen, and caravelles are built there for the Grand Signior. This handsome bason might be made fit for the reception of large vessels, if the same means were employed to clear it, as are used at Marseilles and other ports.
The other harbour is large, it bears the name of Rhodes; and in this frigates of thirty guns may anchor. Vessels are here defended from Westerly winds, which prevail the greatest part of the year. North, and North-easterly winds blow full into the harbour, and when violent, ships are in danger of driving on the rocks, or against the walls of the town. Though Rhodes has retained none of its ancient splendor, its advantageous situation, on the point of a promontory, its houses disposed in the form of an amphitheatre, the solid structure of its walls, and its towers advanced upon the shoals, give it an air of strength and importance to mariners as they approach the city.
The island of Rhodes contains two cities; the capital of the same name, and the ancient Lindus. Of the three cities founded, according to the ancient fable, by the children of the sun, Lindus alone has left any remarkable vestiges. Calirus and Jalisus, mentioned by
Strabo,
are totally destroyed. "Leaving Rhodes," says
Strabo,
"and sailing on with the coast to the right, the first city we arrive at is Lindus, situated on the South-side of the island, and opposite Alexandria. The traveller then admires the famous temple of the Lindian
Minerva,
built by the daughters of
Danaus." Cadmus
enriched it with magnificent offerings. The inhabitants, here, consecrated the seventh ode of
Pindar's
Olympics, which they inscribed in letters of gold. The ruins of this noble edifice, are still visible on an edifice near the sea. The remains of its walls, which were built with enormous stones, discover the Egyptian taste. On the highest part of the rock, we perceive the ruins of a castle that served as a fortress to the town; it occupied a large space which is now filled with rubbish.
The modern Lindus, is situated at the foot of this hill; a deep bay, which runs up far into the land, serves it as a harbour. Before the building of Rhodes, this port was resorted to by the fleets of Egypt and of Tyre. It was enriched by commerce; and a wise government, profiting by its harbour and situation, might still render it a flourishing city.
The soil of Rhodes is dry and sandy, but the numerous springs with which it is watered, render it extremely fertile. Corn thrives here admirably. Its yellow and heavy grain, affords a flour as white as snow, which makes excellent bread. If half of the country capable of growing it were cultivated, the Rhodians would have far more than sufficient for their consumption, and might export to foreign countries. But the Turks are no cultivators; and the Greeks, discouraged by the fear of not enjoying the fruits of their labour, let the finest fields lie barren. It is certain, that a single word from the Pacha, would enrich the country with the treasures of agriculture. He is absolute, and has but to assure the husbandman of his protection; but he knows not whether he shall himself be in place to-morrow, and would be fearful of labouring for the advantage of his successor. Besides, a still more powerful reason prevents him from endeavouring any improvement: the misery of the country constitutes his wealth. Rhodes not furnishing sufficient corn for the support of its inhabitants, he sends to purchase the grain of Caramania, at a low rate. He has this conveyed to market in small quantities, to enhance the price. But what is still more oppressive, is, that the rate fixed for the first bushel of the new crop, serves as the standard price for all that is sold during the remainder of the year. This infamous monopoly, which rapidly enriches those who are concerned in it, is productive of the most fatal consequences to commerce, agriculture, and the industry of the inhabitants. What, indeed, can be expected from a nation in want of the first necessaries of life? What exchanges can they make with foreign countries, if their own be insufficient for their support, and they have neither art nor manufactures? And, indeed, the universal poverty, and frightful depopulation of the island, are indelible proofs of the vices of the government.
There are computed to be seven thousand families in the island; which, reckoning five persons to a family, gives thirty-six thousand inhabitants nearly; of these, two-thirds are Turks, and the remainder Greeks. But the island is more than forty leagues in circumference. Here then is a vast space, occupied by fewer people than is contained in a moderate town in England. The state of the revenues of the island, perfectly corresponds with the small number and poverty of the Rhodians.
TABLE of the Revenues of the Island of Rhodes.
Duties of casack, or capitation
425000
Tenths on all produce of land
23050
Customs
3500
Tax on houses
6250
On the farm of wax
10300
On cattle
800
At the gate
200
On the farm of the baths
1200
On salt
700
New poll-tax on every Greek and Jew
900
On vineyards
600
 
90,300
Here then we have ninety thousand piastres, which the island produces the Grand Signior; from which we must deduct 55,500 piastres, employed in paying the guards of the towns and villages, the inspectors of estates, repairs of the mosques; and bread and soap distributed to the poor. So that the Grand Signior receives only 34,500 piastres.
A piastre is equal to half-a-crown English.
From this calculation, the accuracy of which may be depended on, it appears, that this large island produces less to the Ottoman emperors, than many estates of only some miles extent in this country, are worth to their possessors. Let it not be asked what is become of that powerful people, who, profiting by their advantageous situation, their forests, their harbours, and the fertility of their country, covered the Mediterranean with their victorious fleets;—they have lost their liberty, and with it science and national genius. Rhodes now only affords a few indigent wretches without commerce, arts, or industry; because they can have no property, who wander over the desolate plains of this once flourishing island.
The Turks born in this island, are of a milder disposition, and possess more politeness and urbanity, than in the other provinces of the empire. Less exposed than the Greeks to the rapacity of the great, and peaceably enjoying their property, they lead a happy life in the bosom of their families; and among them, we meet with chearfulness, integrity, and social manners. The Greeks live under the same sky; but accustomed perpetually to crouch beneath the iron sceptre that crushes them, they become hypocritical, deceitful, and dishonest. The proudest of mankind in prosperity, and equally mean and cringing in adversity. They are infected with all the vices which are the consequence of servitude; yet, compelled as it were by the force of climate, they sometimes indulge in merriment. Their joy, however, is not the mild and tranquil joy of the Turks, but a clamorous and irrational mirth; the festivity, in short, of slaves; who, forgetting for a moment their wretched condition, dance amid their chains.
The Pacha is the governor-general of the island. He possesses absolute power, and presides at once over civil justice, and military discipline. He nominates to employments that fall vacant; sentences to death, and is to watch over the maintenance of good order. All private litigations are, as in the other islands and governments, decided before the tribunal of the judge, called the Cadi. His decisions are without appeal. He partakes also of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction with the Mufti.
The Greeks and Jews have a chief named the Monteveli, who is their intendant general; and has the regulation of the capitation tax. He decides all differences that arise among them, without its being necessary to have recourse to any other jurisdiction. When the Cadi has condemned a Greek or Jewish debtor to pay the money due to his creditor, he sends his sentence to the Monteveli; who, if he thinks proper, carries it into execution.
The Rhodians have no troops in their island. They are not warriors. Knowing themselves incapable of resisting the weakest enemy who may attack them, in time of war they hire soldiers from Caramania, to defend their city. These are undisciplined troops, who abandon themselves to all the excesses of a blind ferocity, and are more to be dreaded by the inhabitants than the enemy.
CHAP. XXX.
Candia.
THE ancient Crete, called also Macaron, or Macaronesus,
i. e.
the fortunate island, in allusion to its fertility and the purity of the air, is one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, being in length above two hundred miles, and in breadth, in some parts, about sixty. This island, which in some measure separates the Archipelago from the Mediterranean, is formed by a long chain of mountains, extending from West to East, says
Tott,
and may be considered as a continuation of those which, from the North of the Adriatic, pass over the Morea, and appear again in Caramania, where they join Mount Libanon. The mountains standing thick together on the South-side, among which Mount Ida, that famous mountain of antiquity, towers far above the rest, render this island almost inaccessible towards the Mediterranean, whence the North-side derives all the advantages of culture, of which a bad soil can be susceptible. It is likewise to the excellence of the climate, that it owes the richness of its productions.
Among all the countries I have seen, says
Savary,
there is none whose temperature is so healthy and so agreeable as that of Crete. The heats there are not excessive; and violent cold is absolutely unknown in the plains. The winter, properly speaking, begins only in December, and ends in January. During this short season, snow never falls in the plain, and rarely is the surface of the water frozen. The name of winter is given to these two months from the heavy rains, the cloudy sky, and violent North winds, which blow at this time of the year. No sooner is the month of February past, than the earth is adorned with flowers and harvests. The rest of the year is almost one continued fine day. We never experienced, as in France, says the above author, those cruel returns of piercing cold, which nip the opening flowers, destroy the fruits of the year, and are so prejudicial to delicate constitutions. The sky is continually serene, and the winds mild and temperate. The glorious luminary of the day runs his majestic course through the azure vault, and ripens the fruits of the hills and plains. Nor are the nights less delightful: a delicious coolness then prevails; and the air, less charged with vapours than with us, discovers a greater number of stars to the observer. The blue vault of heaven sparkles with gold, diamonds, and rubies, which seem to dart forth brighter fires. Nothing can be more magnificent than this spectacle, which the Cretans enjoy for ten months in the year.
To the charms of so delightful a climate, are added other advantages, which enhance their value. The island of Crete has hardly any marshes. The waters there are never stagnant; but flowing from the summits of the mountains, in innumerable streams, form delightful fountains, or small rivers which lose themselves in the sea. The elevation of the ground causes them to have a rapid course, and they form neither lakes nor ponds. For this reason, insects cannot deposit their eggs in them, which would be carried into the sea; and the inhabitants are not tormented, as in Egypt, with those clouds of gnats, of which the sting is so painful. For the same reason also, the air is not loaded with those dangerous vapours which rise from the marshes in wet countries.
The hills and rising grounds, are clothed with various species of thyme, savory, serpolet, odoriferous rock-roses, and a variety of plants. Myrtles and laurel-roses border the rivulets which meander through the vallies. On every side the country presents groves of orange, lemon, and almond-trees. The Arabian jessamine blooms in the gardens, which in the spring are decorated with beds of violets. Vast fields are covered with saffron; wild dittany, which has a very fragrant smell, lines the crevices of the rocks: in a word, the mountains, vallies, and plains, exhale, on all sides, aromatic odours, which perfume the air, and render it delicious to respire. Clouds, ice, and snow, are afflicting objects, which throw a mournful veil over the face of nature; they present to the eye, gloomy images, and excite in the mind melancholy reflections, and painful feelings in the heart. Nay, not unfrequently, they are injurious to the health, and produce a general indisposition. But a clear sky has an effect the very reverse.
When we travel through different countries, or even through distant provinces of the same kingdom, the change of air is perceived in a very sensible manner. This impression indeed is greater or less, according to the greater or less degree of sensibility of every individual; nor does it wholly depend on the accidental circumstances of cold or heat. We feel in respiring the vital element, an odour, a taste, a savour, which vary according to circumstances, and the varieties of climates and seasons. These sensations produce pleasure, or an uncomfortable feeling, as they are suitable, or contrary, to the actual state of our constitution; nor are we to esteem this extraordinary: the exhalations from the earth, waters, plants, and flowers, incorporate with the atmosphere, and compose the air we breathe. Every man of understanding, therefore, who has any regard for his health, ought not to be indifferent concerning the choice of his habitation; as, on it, in a great measure, depends the preservation of that most valuable blessing.
The instant I landed on the coast of Alexandria, says
Savary,
I enhaled a fiery air, with which I was nearly suffocated; I felt a moist and debilitating heat, which rendered me languid, and deprived me of all strength of body, or vigour of mind. I concluded it was impossible I could live in such a country; but a copious perspiration presently taking place, the violent heat of my blood diminished, and I soon found myself greatly relieved. In the beginning of the spring, when the orange-trees round Damietta were in flower, and filled the atmosphere with their fragrance; when heat, as yet only moderate, left the body in possession of its energy and activity, I tasted, in the most lively manner, the charms of so delicious a temperature, breathed with rapture a fresh and perfumed air, and every pulsation of the heart was an enjoyment. This pleasure, though every moment repeated, never produced satiety.
In the same places, when in the month of July, the husbandman had turned up the mud of the morasses, to plant his rice, the atmosphere became loaded with exhalations, which oppressed the breast, and obstructed respiration. The faces of the inhabitants were discoloured; sickness became general; and, had not the northerly winds, which prevail at that season, chased away the malignant vapours, and the earth been very soon covered with harvests, the most violent distempers would have ensued.
In fact, so large a river as the Nile, flowing through, and periodically inundating Egypt, cannot but render the air humid, which moderates the heat of the sun, and renders the country habitable. The air there is very salutary to the lungs; disorders of the breast are unknown; and
Galen,
who studied at Alexandria, and was well acquainted with the nature of the climate, sent thither all his patients with pulmonary complaints, and they commonly found the cure they sought.
The beauty of man, his powers and his health, depend in general on the climate he inhabits; his food, and the nature of his occupations. In Crete, the Turk who is not tormented by ambition, or the thirst of wealth, whose mind is never occupied by the chimeras of intrigue, who knows not envy, nor exhausts himself in the pursuit of sciences, to which we too often sacrifice our health; the Turk who lives on wholesome and simple aliments, and passes his days amid the flowery fields he cultivates, grows and rises into a Colossus. The salubrity of the air he breathes, the sweet temperature he enjoys, the delightful scenes perpetually before his eyes, and the peaceful life he leads, all contribute to strengthen his body, and preserve his vigour, even beneath the snows of age. Hither the sculptor, devoted to his art, and emulating the ancients, should come in search of models. He would see young men of eighteen or twenty, six feet high, who possess all the graces peculiar to their time of life. Their muscles have still a little plumpness, which will soon assume a bolder character; their cheeks, gracefully rounded, display an animated carnative, and their eyes are full of fire.
In men arrived at maturity, the features and outlines are more developed. Their legs are naked; and when their robes are lifted up, the muscles appear boldly prominent: their arms exhibit those signs of strength, which were visible in those of the ancient athletae: their shoulders are broad, their chests full, and their necks never straitened by the ligatures, which from infancy confine those of the Europeans, retain all the beautiful proportions assigned to that part by nature: no tight breeches or garters bind the legs below the knee; that part of their leg therefore is never distorted or contracted, nor is the knee too prominent. In a word, all their limbs, unaccustomed to the fetters which confine our motion, and which habit alone could render supportable, preserve their natural form, and that admirable symmetry which constitutes male beauty. When they stand erect, all parts of the body properly support each other. When they walk, they move with an air of dignity, and bodily strength and firmness of mind display themselves in every gesture. Their majestic eye announces that they are accustomed to command. Pride and severity, may sometimes be apparent in their looks, but never meanness.
The Mahometans, who inhabit the island of Crete, are such, says
Savary,
as I have here represented them. They are in general from six feet to six feet five inches high. They resemble the ancient statues; and in fact such were the men the artists of antiquity took for their models. In a country where the men are so remarkable for bodily strength, and dignity of aspect, it may fairly be concluded, that the women cannot be wanting in beauty and the graces. Their dress does not prevent the growth of any part of their body, but is accommodated to those admirable proportions with which the Creator has decorated the most lovely of his works. All are not handsome, all do not possess charms; but some of them are extremely beautiful, particularly among the Turks. In general the Cretan women have a luxuriant bosom; a neck gracefully rounded; black eyes, full of fire; a small mouth; a nose perfectly well made, and cheeks which health tinges with the softest vermillion. But the oval of their faces is different from that of the women in Europe, and the character of their beauty is peculiar to their nation.
During the first year or two of my travels in the Eastern countries, accustomed as I had been to the elegant head dress of the ladies of France, I could not endure the black hair of the Oriental women. So difficult is it for reason to disengage itself from the fetters of habit. But after more mature reflection, their long black locks, artificially plaited, without either powder or pomatum, appeared to me well calculated to heighten their beauty. The ebon colour of their hair seemed to give more lustre to the fairness of their complexions, and the glow of their cheeks. The rose-water, with which they wash their hair, exhaled an agreeable perfume; and I was delighted with the natural beauty of their tresses. I then changed my opinion, and could not help wishing that the European women would not spoil one of their most charming ornaments with the colours of art, so much inferior to those of nature.
The Greeks, says
Savary,
who inhabit the island of Candia, partake indeed with the Turks, the advantages of a serene sky, a pure air, and a happy temperature; but they are oppressed by tyrants. They live in perpetual anxiety and apprehension, and frequently terminate their miserable lives in despair. Excepting the Spaehiots, who are less exposed to tyranny; these unfortunate beings have neither the lofty stature, the strength, nor the beauty of the Turks. The stamp of servitude is visible in their faces; their looks are crouching, and their features distorted by knavery and meanness. Such is the character of those Cretans, who were once so jealous of their liberty; those experienced and intrepid warriors, who were courted by all nations; and those friends to the arts, which they cultivated amid their shady groves. At present, cowardly and indolent, they live in debasement, and we may read in their degraded countenances, that
they are slaves.
The island of Candia does not produce a multitude of reptiles. Very few serpents, and those only small ones, are to be found in it. The ancients affirmed, that this beautiful country contained no noxious animals.
Pliny
excepts the tarantula, which
Belon,
who has written on the natural and artificial curiosities of Greece, calls
Phalangion.
They assert its poison is mortal. It is a sort of spider, almost an inch long, with a scaly coat. It hollows out in the sides of little eminences, a pretty deep hole, which it covers with a strong web of cross threads glued together. This little passage, at the bottom of which it lodges, is closed externally by a valve, that prevents the rain from penetrating; and which it opens when going in quest of insects, and closes again when it re-enters. If two or three of these tarantulas are shut up in a glass phial, they sting each other, and die soon after.
The quadrupeds of the island are not mischievous; we neither meet with lions, tigers, bears, wolves, nor even foxes; in short, no dangerous animal. The wild-goats are the only inhabitants of the forests, which cover the high mountains, and have nothing to fear but the gun of the hunter. Hares are found on the eminences and in the plains. The sheep feed in safety on the various species of wild thyme. They are folded every evening, and the shepherd sleeps in peace, free from the dread of seeing death and havock spread among his flock by wild beasts.
It is a happiness for the Cretans, that they are neither troubled with musquitos, nor have any thing to apprehend from the poison of serpents, or the ferocity of wild beasts. The young and lively maiden may dance upon the grass, without finding, like
Eurydice,
a viper concealed among the flowers. The ancients ascribed these singular advantages to its being the birth-place of
Jupiter.
"The Cretans, says
Aelian,
celebrate in their songs the bounties of
Jupiter,
and the favour he has granted their island, his native and nursing land, of being free from every noxious animal, and of not even nourishing those which may be brought into it."
Among the medicinal plants, dittany holds the first rank. It is astonishing, how highly the ancients have extolled its virtues.
Theophrastus,
who gives us the received opinions of his time, says, "Of all the known plants which the earth has produced, dittany is the most precious." The father of medicine, the celebrated
Hippocrates,
ordered an infusion of it to be given in several disorders of women, and especially during the pains of a difficult labour. For this reason, the statue of
Diana,
was, according to some writers, crowned with dittany.
I shall not here repeat, says
Savary,
in his description of this island, with several authors, that the wild goats when wounded by the arrows of the hunter, freed themselves from them by eating this precious plant; that it possessed the virtue of healing them, even when the arrows were poisoned; and that its odour was so powerful as to drive away venemous reptiles; and destroy them, if it only touched them. These accounts are evidently exaggerated; but we are possibly, on the other hand, too indifferent to the real utility medicine might derive from this plant. Its leaf is extremely balsamic, and the flower diffuses a delicious fragrance. The inhabitants, at present, apply it very successfully on many occasions. An infusion of the dried leaf, with a little sugar, yields a liquor more pleasing to the palate, and more finely flavoured than tea. It immediately removes languor of the stomach, and restores it after digestion.
Dittany is peculiar to the island of Crete, and is not to be found in any other country. It grows in the crevices of the rocks, and at the foot of precipices.
Pliny
has not sufficiently discriminated it; "Dittany, says he, has slender branches, resembles penny-royal, and is hot and rough to the taste; its leaves only are made use of; it has neither flower, stalk, nor seed."
Virgil
's description is more conformable to truth. "This plant bears shagged leaves, which are crowned with purple flowers. The wild goats find in it a remedy, when wounded by the winged arrow."
In a country where the air is extremely pure, disorders are not frequent; there are no epidemical diseases in this island. Fevers are, indeed, frequent in the summer, but not attended with danger; and the plague would never make its appearance, had not the Turks destroyed the lazaretto's, erected by the Venetians. Since then, it has been brought occasionally by the ships from Smyrna and Constantinople.
But a malady, which though less dangerous than the plague, has something even more hideous in its symptoms, infects this beautiful country. I mean the leprosy. This disorder had its ancient seat in Syria, whence it has passed into many of the islands of the Archipelago. It is contagious, and instantly communicated by the touch. Those unhappy wretches, who are attacked by it, are confined to little huts, built on the sides of the highways; from which they are not allowed to come out, or converse with any person. They usually have a small garden round their cottages, that supplies them with vegetables and poultry; with which, and the alms they receive from passengers, they drag on a miserable existence. Their bloated skin is covered with a scaly crust, full of red and white spots, which occasion intolerable itchings. They beg relief in a hoarse and hollow voice, at the very sound of which you are apt to shudder; their words are scarcely articulate, as the disorder is internally destroying the organs of speech. These wretched spectres gradually lose the use of their limbs; and live till, the whole mass of blood becoming corrupt, death is the consequence of putrefaction. No sight can be more melancholy or more shocking, than that of a leper; no torments are comparable to those that he endures.
The rich are not attacked by this malady, which confines itself to the lower class of people, and particularly to those among the Greeks, who observe strictly their four lents, and live, during that time, on nothing but salt fish, pickled olives, and cheese; and drink copiously of the thick heavy wines of the island. It is possible this diet may inflame and thicken their blood, and at length be the cause of the leprosy. I am led to suspect this, says
Savary,
from having observed that this disorder never manifests itself among such of the Turks as are rich enough to procure animal food the whole year, with rice and vegetables; nor even among the Greeks, who inhabit the mountains, and eat plentifully of sallads, fruits, and milk.
Elated with having been the birth-place of
Jupiter,
and proud of her hundred cities, Crete long continued more powerful than the other islands of the Mediterranean. At present her glory is eclipsed. Time has not spared a single one of all her cities, of which we see nothing but the ruins. Candia is the modern capital, and has given its name to the island.
The three cities, Candia, Canea and Rhetimo, are the seats of the three Pachalies, into which the Ottoman government has divided this island. The first, who enjoys the title of Seraskier, has pre-eminence over the other two.
Candia, says
Savary,
is the seat of the Turkish government. The Porte usually sends thither a Pacha with three tails. Here also the principal officers and different corps of the Ottoman soldiery are assembled. This city, so rich, populous, and commercial, under the Venetian government, is greatly fallen from its ancient grandeur. The harbour, which is a handsome bason, where ships are sheltered from every wind, is daily filling up, and at present only capable of receiving boats and small vessels, lightened of a part of their cargo. Those freighted by the Turks at Candia, are obliged to proceed, almost in ballast, to wait for their loading in the ports of Standia, four leagues distant, where it is brought to them in small barks. These difficulties, which the Turks do not endeavour to remedy, are very detrimental to commerce; which, accordingly, has extremely declined.
Candia, greatly embellished by the Venetians, is divided into strait streets, and decorated with well-built houses, a handsome square, and a magnificent fountain; but contains, within its extensive walls, only a small number of inhabitants. Several quarters of the town are almost deserted. That of the market is the only one in which we perceived activity or affluence. The Mahometans have converted the greatest part of the Christian temples into mosques. They have left, however, two churches for the Greeks; one for the Armenians; and a synagogue for the Jews. The capuchins have a small convent, with a chapel, in which the French vice-consul hears mass; for, at present, he is the only person of that nation who resides at Candia, the French merchants having retired to Canea.
The river to the west of Candia, was anciently called the Triton; and near its source,
Minerva
was born of
Jupiter,
whence is derived the epithet Tritogenes. Beyond is a river, on whose banks, according to the fables of antiquity,
Jupiter
celebrated his nuptials with
Juno.
In the space of more than half a league round the walls of Candia, we do not meet with a single tree. The country beyond abounds in corn and fruit-trees, and the adjacent hills, covered with vineyards, yields the malmsey of Mount Ida, worthy a place at the table of epicures. This wine, little known in France, is perfumed, of a very agreeable flavour, and in high estimation in this country.
At no great distance from Candia, are the ruins of Cnossus, called by the Greeks
Cnossou.
This was the royal city of
Minos,
who established there the seat of his empire, and gave those wise and admirable laws so justly boasted by antiquity. This city, says
Strabo,
was a league and an half in circuit, and long continued one of the most celebrated of the island. United with
Gortyna, Polybius,
mentions, that it gave law to almost all Crete; but falling afterwards into misfortunes,
Gortyna
and
Lyctos
profited by its decline, and Cnossus was for a time stript of almost all its splendor; but soon repairing these losses, again resumed its station amongst the most flourishing cities of Greece. The Romans, to secure their conquests, established a numerous colony there. At length, in the thirteenth year of the reign of
Nero,
the whole island suffering by a violent earthquake, Cnossus was totally destroyed. The lightning, during this tremendous calamity, says
Philostratus,
did not proceed from the clouds, but from the earth, and the sea retreated seven stadia. Several tombs, according to
Suidas,
burst open; in one of which was found the works of
Dictys
of Crete, containing die events of the Trojan war.
From that time, the lofty Cnossus, humbled in the dust, has never risen from her ruins; but heaps of stones, ancient walls half demolished, the remains of edifices, and the name of
Cnossou,
which the spot it stood on still retains, enable us to assign its ancient situation. These ruins were, no doubt, much more considerable before the building of Candia; because, as they were so near, it may well be supposed the Venetians made use of them, as materials for the ramparts and houses of that capital.
About four leagues to the South of Candia, on the summit of a very deep mountain, are a heap of stones, half eaten away by time, which the inhabitants of the country call the tomb of
Jupiter.
The third
Jupiter,
says
Cicero,
son of
Saturn,
who was king of Crete, has a tomb in that island.
Jupiter
having ended his days in Crete, his relations, in obedience to his last commands, erected a temple and tomb to his memory. The temple still subsisted in the days of
Plato.
This philosopher, who was well acquainted with the places he describes, speaks of it thus in his first book of laws. "The road which leads from Cnossus to the cavern and temple of
Jupiter,
is very pleasant. We continually meet with alleys of large tufted trees, whose foliage shelters us from the scorching heat of the sun. If we proceed still further, we find woods of cypress-trees, of surprising height and beauty; by the side of which, are delightful meadows, where travellers may repose and converse."
From all these authorities we may conclude, that a man called
Jupiter,
who, by great actions, merited well of his subjects, and on whom divine honours were bestowed, died in the island of Crete; that a temple was erected to him, which has been destroyed by time; that a tomb was shewn with an inscription on it, till the time of the Roman emperors; and that, at present, there is to be seen about three leagues from Cnossus, an eminence, commonly called mount Icarus; on the top of which, the inhabitants of the country point out a heap of stones, which they call the tomb of
Jupiter.
As for the sacred cavern in which he was brought up, and to which
Minos
repaired every ninth year, to converse with his father, and receive his laws, it may be presumed not to have been far distant; but, says
Savary,
we did not see it.
In the mountains, and on the road from Candia to Canea, is a convent of Greek monks, possessing extensive lands, which the Turks have left them, on condition of their exercising hospitality towards all travellers, which they commonly do with a tolerable good grace. Both riders and horses are lodged and supplied with provisions. These houses, in a country where there are neither inns nor caravanseras, are of great use. Without them, the traveller would be obliged to carry with him a load of baggage, and every necessary of life.
As soon as we alighted at the above convent, says
Savary,
several children came to take our horses by the bridles, and walk them about for a quarter of an hour, before they put them into the stable. This custom is constantly observed in Crete; they never shut up the horses when in a sweat, but always make a rule of walking them about in the open air. Hence, the Cretan horses are strong, healthy, and never tire. They boldly clime the steepest rocks, and descend the same into the vallies, without stumbling.
A magnificent repast was served up to us. The superior set before us most exquisite wines, the produce of the hills round the monastery, on which we bestowed the highest commendation. After supper, we were conducted to a spacious hall, where we perfectly well enjoyed the pleasures of repose. To shew respect to the French consul, in whose company we were, they had allotted him a separate apartment, and placed two full decanters by his bed-side. In the morning he wished to wash his mouth, and pouring out some of the supposed water, found it to be white wine. He took the other decanter and filled his glass, but this proved to be pure brandy. No doubt, says
Savary,
these good monks are accustomed to make libations to the god of sleep, or to console themselves for his rigours with the bottle.
Canea, anciently Cydonia, the principal residence of the merchants and factors in the island of Candia, is well laid out; the principal street is as strait as a line, and the squares are decorated with fountains. It possesses no remarkable edifices. The greatest part of the houses have only one story, and are built with terraces: those which are round the harbour, are ornamented with galleries, which afford a most charming prospect. The harbour admits ships of two hundred tons burthen; and if deepened, would afford good anchorage to the largest frigates. It contains, at present, about sixteen thousand inhabitants.
The Turks who inhabit Candia, are not so implicitly submissive to the orders of the Grand Signior, as those of the other provinces of the empire. They mutually support each other against the tyranny of the Pacha, and refuse to bow their necks to the yoke of despotism. Inrolled as Janissaries at their birth, they compose the principal soldiery of the island; and it would be dangerous to drive them to revolt. When their governors have been guilty of oppression, they have been known to have recourse to arms, and demand vengeance. Of this, there was of late years, a very remarkable example; the Pacha of Canea, had a kind of deputy, who, like the rest of those in office, made use of every means to amass wealth, and drew on himself the detestation of the people. The Greeks did not dare to murmur, but the Turks were not so patient; they brought their complaints before the governor, but either because he had a real friendship for him, or was a sharer in his plunder, he would not listen to them; when, on a sudden, soon after, says
Savary,
who was then at Canea, we heard a great tumult in the town. The Janissaries ran through the streets, sabre in hand, crying. To arms! And, as in such circumstances, foreigners are always in danger from a licentious populace; we kept ourselves shut up in the consular house, waiting the event.
The house of the officer of the Pacha, which was a spacious building lately finished, was opposite to ours, on the other side of the harbour. This was presently filled with upwards of five hundred persons, pillaging and destroying every thing that fell in their way. Some tore out the sashes, and threw them upon the quay; others mounted on the terrace, broke down the parapets; while some were returning loaded with furniture. A great number of them were diligently searching to discover the object of public hatred; and in less than two hours the whole house was emptied, and half demolished.
An enraged multitude always proceed to excesses, which no one can foresee. The soldiers took possession of a high fort, which commands the town, whence they could thunder on the castle of the Pachas, against which they pointed several heavy pieces of cannon; and, after leaving a guard at the port, proceeded in a body to demand justice, resolving in case of refusal, to bury their governor under the ruins of his palace. The whole town followed with dreadful shouts, which reaching the ears of the Pacha, who was an old warrior, rendered respectable by many gallant actions, he had himself conveyed in an arm-chair into the middle of his court-yard, and when he saw the storm approaching, and that the furious populace were preparing to break down the gates, ordered them instantly to be thrown open. At the sight of this venerable old man, who had a long white beard, the mutineers were struck silent, and the most daring among them seemed motionless with astonishment. At length, none venturing to speak, "Well, my good people", said the governor, "what do you ask of me"? They all cried out, we must have the head of your deputy. "He is fled", replied the Pacha; "but if you find him, I abandon him to your vengeance; return to your duty, lay down your arms, and let every man go peaceably home". This firmness awed even the most mutinous, and a rebellion, which might have had fatal consequences, was appeased in an instant, by the courage and prudence of a single man. He had, however, concealed his favourite, and in the night, sent him on board a ship, which immediately set sail for Constantinople. After his departure, things returned to their usual channel, and peace was once more restored within the walls of Canea.
Quitting Canea, the traveller sees before him the white mountains, at present called the hills of Sphachia. This chain of eminences is in height second only to Mount Ida, which is the most extensive in the island. They form in front of Canea, an immense rampart; the summit of which is lost in the clouds, and seems to separate that city from the rest of the island. The lowest chain is but two leagues from the town, and may be about six hundred yards high. Between that and the second, opens out a vast plain, three leagues in diameter, and of considerable length; this intermediate chain is far higher than the former. Beyond are lofty peaks; to which, without doubt, the name of the white mountains were given, from their being, during a part of the year, covered with snow; which collecting in heaps, in the deep vallies on the North-side, hardens, and never melts: the inhabitants cut it in large pieces, which they bring to Canea, in the night, and thus enjoy the luxury of drinking iced liquors in the hottest days of summer.
These mountains are an appanage granted by the Grand Signior to the Sultana
Valida,
and are entirely independent of the government of the Pachas. The Sultana sends a person she can confide in, to govern them, and collect the tributes. The Greeks, who inhabit them, are called Sphachiots; they rear numerous flocks of goats and sheep, keep bees, and make excellent cheese, which has the taste of Parmesan.
The Sphachiots confined to their mountains, are more distinct from the different nations who have possessed Crete, than the inhabitants of the plains; they speak a dialogue less corrupt than the rest of of the Candians, and have retained several customs of their ancestors, and certain peculiarities of their ancient character. When
Belon
travelled among them, they were the best archers in the island; they had very large bows, and displayed more address, strength, and courage, than the other Greeks. Even since the musquet has succeeded to the bow, they are not less skilful in the use of the latter; and in general are excellent marksmen.
Of all the Cretans, the Spachiots alone have retained the Pyrrhic dance; this they perform, clad in their ancient dress; that is to say, a short robe bound with a girdle, breeches and buskins; a quiver filled with arrows is fastened over their shoulder; a bent bow hangs on their arm, and by their sides they have a long sword. Thus accoutred, they begin the dance, which has three measures. The first marks the step, and they change feet in dancing, like the Germans; the movements of the second are more lively, and resemble the dance of the inhabitants of Lower Brittany, in France; during the third measure, they leap backwards and forwards, first on one foot, and then on the other, with great agility. The dancers, who answer them, imitate the same steps, and sing and dance with them to the same tune. In the course of this dance, they perform various evolutions; sometimes forming a circle; at others, dividing and ranging themselves in two lines, and seeming to menace each other with their weapons. Afterwards they separate into couples, and appear as if defying their antagonists to the combat; but in all their movements, their ear is true to the music, and they never vary from the measure.
In the ancient Cretan republic, the people were divided into two classes; that of the youth, and that of mature manhood; this division is still preserved among the Sphachiots, but not in the purity of the first institution. Formerly the young men were subject to the reproof of the aged, and obeyed them; at present they wish to command. This want of proper subordination has been productive of great misfortunes to the whole nation. During the last war with the Russians, the Turks imagined that the inhabitants of Sphachia intended to give up the island to their enemies, and pretended that some Russian ships, touching at the Southern-side of the island, had formed a treaty with the Sphachiots. This was enough to make the Mahometans take up arms. They marched to the number of eight thousand, and climbed, without difficulty, the first chain of mountains; but it was not so easy to scale the second, and a handful could have prevented them. The class of men proposed to fight, and defend their rocks; but the youth, no doubt, seduced by the promises of the Turks, advised submission; and while their fathers were making head against the enemy, had the baseness to introduce them by secret paths, to the summits of their mountains. The moment they appeared, the Sphachiots took to flight, and concealed themselves as they could, in caverns of the rocks, and among precipices. The Mussulmen cruelly abusing their victory, destroyed whole villages, massacred many of the inhabitants, and carried off a great number into slavery, without sparing either men, women, or children.
Near Canea is the convent of Acrotiri, a frightful solitude; in the environs of which nothing is seen but dreary rocks, and at their feet the wild thyme, briars, thyme with the odoriferous flowers, the laudanum, and a few strawberry-bushes. The Nuns here are not cloistered, and make no other vow than that of virginity. Each chuses a companion, and thus coupled, they reside in small houses, built round a chapel, to which a Greek priest comes to say mass. These couples perform all the mutual offices of friendship, assist each other, and possess in common, an inclosure, more or less considerable, appropriated to the double cell. This is their garden and orchard, in which we find orange, almond, and olive-trees. They likewise keep bees, which are not shut up in hives, and have no covering but planks laid cross-ways on two posts; beneath which shelter, these industrious creatures deposit their honey and wax. The first combs are the largest, and gradually diminish to a point. They are all in the shape of an inverted pyramid, and it is surprising how fast they are made by the bees. The honey of these insects is produced from the flowers of the different kinds of thyme, and an infinity of odoriferous plants and shrubs, with which the country is covered; nor can any honey exceed it in purity, or fragrance.
But to return to our nuns; I have already said, that, united in pairs, they inhabit a building consisting of three or four apartments. Each of these little dwellings contains various conveniences within itself. They have here likewise a vast cistern, a necessary precaution, on an eminence, without water, a winepress, an oven, and one or two looms for making linen. They generally rear silk-worms, and gather cotton, which is an annual plant in this country. One of the sisters spins, while the other weaves, and some of them knit stockings. When they have provided themselves with what is necessary for their own use, they sell the remaining fruits of their industry in the town.
In their cells is neither sumptuousness nor magnificence; we find only convenient utensils, and absolutely necessary furniture, which is kept neat and clean. In a word, these nuns, without being rich, enjoy a comfortable subsistence, for which they are indebted to their industry. Chearfulness is their constant companion, and we see among them no melancholy faces. In general a younger sister unites herself with an elder than herself, to solace and relieve her from the burthen of the more laborious employments. I frequently, says
Savary,
visited a Greek lady, who every year passed a few weeks in this monastery, and always found among them voluntary nuns; a mildness, modesty, and liveliness very remote from that sour and austere character, absolutely inconsistent with virtue.
At the moment I am writing, adds the above writer, Acrotiri contains within its narrow precincts, the decrepitude of age, the vigour of riper years, and all the charms of youth. I have seen three of these females well deserving to employ the pencil of a skilful painter: a nun of an hundred and nine years old, another of thirty-six, and a novice of sixteen. The first bent like a bow, with difficulty hobbled along by the aid of a small staff, and seemed every moment ready to sink with feebleness. She had still preserved all her senses, though blunted, and in a kind of stupor. To extract any conversation from her, she must have a a glass of cordial, or of excellent wine, which gradually revived her heart. She told us, she was born in the village of La Sude, which was then in the possession of the Venetians; and recollected the different times that fortress had been besieged by the Turks, their throwing the bombs upon the roofs of the houses, and the terror it spread among the inhabitants. After the taking of the fort, she retired to this convent, where she had resided near fourteen years.
The second was tall, with an animated countenance, and elegant features; her air was majestic, her eye-brows black, and her eyes sparkling; but the roses of her cheeks, and the lilies of her complexion began to fade. She was still handsome, but her beauty was the beauty of maturity; the delicacy and softness of blooming youth was evidently past, and each successive day robbed her of a charm.
But the third, to conceive a just idea of her beauty, one must have seen her; the powers of description are totally insufficient to convey it. Unite in imagination, all the charms which sometimes adorn the fairest of nature's works, in all their delicacy and perfection, in all their astonishing harmony and grace, and it will give but a feeble image of the novice of Acrotiri. Her features had uncommon animation, and her eyes sparkled with a lustre that seemed more than human, and which it was impossible to sustain unmoved. How indescribable must have been her smile, would this beauteous virgin have consented to smile. Transcendant as were her charms, her dress was of the most simple kind; yet it seemed as if no ornament might be added, that could embellish her. Every action, every attitude, made her appearance still more lovely. Absolutely unconscious of her beauty, she waited with apparent pleasure on the nun, whom she considered as her mother, and anticipated all her desires. Her whole air and manner were free from the slightest tinge of affectation; she appeared absorbed in sublime ideas, and only aspired to be received among the nuns of Acrotiri. I cannot deny, says
Savary,
that I was sensibly concerned, at the thought of so many charms being for ever buried in the depth of a sad solitude; and that she, who seemed born to give the highest felicity to some favoured mortal, should be separated for ever from the society of man.
Let a painter try what his art can effect, and if he would represent the bloom of youth, the maturity of riper years, and old age in her decrepitudes, let him pourtray the three females I have endeavoured to describe. But he will fail in the attempt. To succeed, he must, like me, have seen the originals. The imagination only traces with fidelity what the eye has observed. Then genius meditates and composes, and by its powers, become creative; for perfectly to represent such objects, is rather to create than to imitate. This was the perfection to which
Protogenes
attained. The froth on the mouth of the panting dog, appeared to him imitated and not natural. An ordinary artist would have been satisfied, but the Rhodian painter aspired to the perfection of nature; that is, to be like her Creator.
Rhetimo, anciently Rhitymna, the third chief city of the island, and residence of a Pacha; is a handsome town situated on the entrance of a rich and fertile plain. It is not large, and scarcely contains six thousand inhabitants. A citadel built on a rock, which projects into the sea, would be sufficient for its defence, were it not commanded by a high hill, from which, it may be battered with artillery. The harbour, which is nearly choaked up, is only capable of receiving barks and small vessels. The Turks never trouble themselves to prevent, or repair, the ravages of time, and behold with unconcern, the most useful works become heaps of ruins. Their harbours, therefore, are every where filling up, and the commerce they attracted deserts them, to seek more commodious situations. The French had formerly a vice-consul at Rhetimo, to which place the ships of Marseilles came to take in oil; but, for a long time past, they have not been able to approach the town, and the government have withdrawn an officer, that can now be of no use.
It is, nevertheless, much to be wished, that the port of Rhetimo may be restored. The plains round it, abound in various productions, and oils, cotton, saffron, and wax, are extremely plentiful; all which different branches of commerce would become still more extensive, could the inhabitants convey their produce to a foreign market. Their gardens produce the best fruit in the island. Their pomegranates, almonds, pistachio nuts, and oranges, are excellent. Here we find the apricot-tree, that produces the
mich-mich;
a fruit of an exquisite fragrance, and yielding a delicious juice. It is a kind of alberge, but more mellow, and smaller than that of France.
CHAP. XXXI.
(In Continuation.)
FIVE leagues from this town, an immense country opens, between the western extremity and Mount Ida, and the first chain of the white mountains. In this large valley is the village of Marguerites, the most populous of any in the island, which contains about ten thousand Greeks, who cultivate the rich adjoining plains, and would carry their oils, grain, and other commodities to Rhetimo, if they had a harbour. This village, or rather town, is but two leagues distant from the northern sea, and not far from the road to Candia. Close to it flows a small river, which falls from the mountains in cascades. The charming temperature, and varied productions of this beautiful country, invited the Venetians to settle there. They had built country-houses in this district, where they passed a part of the year; several of which are still to be seen; but it is with regret we find them occupied by ignorant Greeks, or barbarous Turks. Nothing remains but the ruins of those gardens which art designed, and nature delighted in decorating with a perpetual succession of flowers and fruits.
The Turks in this island, do not reserve in their houses, separate apartments for every person of the family; the women only have distinct chambers; the men sleep together in spacious halls, on matrasses spread on the carpeting, and provided with sheets and a blanket. Agreeable to this ancient custom, says
Savary,
in his travels through the island, we were shewn into a large room, round which our beds were placed on the ground. Only two centuries ago, says the above author, it was usual even in France, for the whole family to pass the night in the same apartment; since that time, our manners have undergone a great change; they have infinitely more delicacy and convenience; nay, perhaps more decency; but are they more social?
Describing his reception, and an entertainment at a country-house of a Turkish nobleman, our author adds, the table was spread in the garden under the shade of orange-trees. Six of these beautiful trees, planted in a circle, united their branches, which had never been mutilated by the shears, and formed over our heads a roof impenetrable to the rays of the sun. In the middle of a very hot day, we enjoyed in this arbour, which nature has so profusely embellished, a delicious coolness. On every side, flowers hung in garlands over the guests, and formed a crown for each. The brightness of their colours, their exquisite odours, the beauty of the foliage gently agitated by the zephyrs; every thing conspired to make us imagine ourselves suddenly transported to some enchanted grove. To complete the whole, a beautiful stream which descended from the adjoining hills, passed under the table, and contributed to preserve the pleasantness and coolness of our arbour; on each side of us, we beheld it gliding over a golden sand, and winding its crystal stream through the garden, in which a great number of small canals had been dug, to convey its water to the orange, the pomegranate, and almond-trees; which repaid, with interest, the moisture they received in flowers and in fruits.
The table was now served; the Aga had endeavoured to provide for us suitable to our taste; we were presented with all the utensils common in France; and our host himself conformed to our customs. Knowing that we were used to take soup, he supplied us with a great dish of roast-meats, covered with a delicious jelly. Round this were bartavelles, almost as large as our hen; there were, besides, excellent quails, a roasted lamb, and hashed meat dressed with rice, perfectly well seasoned. The wine corresponded with the excellence of the rest of our entertainment; we were served with
vin de loi,
malmsey of Mount Ida, and a sort of perfumed red wine, equally agreeable to the smell and the taste. The
vin de loi
is rather bitter, but leaves an agreeable flavour in the mouth, and excites a gentle warmth in the stomach. The malmsey of Mount Ida is more unctuous, more agreeable to the palate, and not less fragrant.
Our good patriarch, wishing to imitate his guests, and take his glass in defiance of the prophet, had sent away his servants and his children. Laying aside the Turkish gravity which never condescends to smile; he chatted with much vivacity, and frequently astonished us by the penetration of his understanding, the aptness of his replies, and the justness of his ideas. When the dishes were removed, we were presented with Moka coffee and pipes. The pipes made use of here, are of jasmine, and the part applied to the mouth of amber; their enormous length entirely takes away the pungency of the tobacco, which, in Turkey, however, is mild; and, being mixed with the wood of aloes, produce a vapour neither disagreeable nor incommodious, as in other countries.
As soon as the great heat was over, he called his sons, and ordered them to attend us on a shooting party; we descended into a plain, where we found plenty of quails, and had the pleasure of killing many without fatigue. The darkness which now advanced over the hills, brought us back to the house, and as the nights in this climate are as clear and fine as the days are beautiful, we supped in the arbour of orange-trees. Rarely do we enjoy this luxury in France; the night air has always a degree of chillness that makes us shudder; or a copious dew falls injurious to health. In Crete, these inconveniences are not felt. The sky was without a cloud, the coolness agreeable, and the air so calm, as scarcely to disturb the light of four large wax tapers, which illumined the foliage in a thousand different ways, and the varied productions of which, produced lights and shades of an admirable effect. The condensation of the air had collected the fragrant perfumes of the flower and shrubs, and every sense was delighted.
This Turkish nobleman possessed several other country houses. That to which we were invited, he only occupied in the spring; for he passes the violent heat of the summer in a charming retreat, situated among the mountains. Then, while the sun scorches up the plain, and the whole atmosphere seems on fire, he enjoys a delicious temperature; and beholds the country round him clad in verdure, and covered with fruits and flowers.
During the whole time we passed at his seat, we experienced from him nothing but the utmost politeness; he made us no great compliments, but studied our tastes; and we were sure of finding on our table, the dishes to which we seemed to give a preference. One morning rising before my companions, and walking among the neighbouring orchards, I perceived this venerable Mussulman standing near a fountain contiguous to the house; he was washing his face and hands, and chaunting the first chapter of the koran, that is to say, one of the finest hymns ever addressed by man to the supreme Being. He seemed infinitely absorbed in the adoration he was paying to his Creator; and I conceived, says
Savary,
a favourable opinion of a man, who fulfilled with so much dignity, the first of all duties.
Such is the life led by the rich Mahometans, in Candia; they pass three-fourths of the year on their estates, and repair in winter to the town, to sell the superfluity of their produce, which procures them very considerable wealth. Content with their possessions, they aspire after none of the public employments which might endanger their safety; but see them without envy in the possession of strangers. Uncontrolled monarchs on their own estates, they command and receive implicit obedience. Possessing the handsomest women in the island, they bring up their numerous offspring in the respect and submission due to the chief of the family. These Mahometans, enjoying without pain, anxiety, or ambition, all the bounties offered them by nature, pass their days in tranquility and happiness; and retain, even in a very advanced age, almost unimpaired good health.
The Greeks, notwithstanding the contemptible state of debasement to which they are reduced, still retain a pride and vanity, that can only be equalled by their ignorance. Of this we had a striking instance, at the convent of Asomatos; in the mountains bordering on Mount Ida, where we halted one evening, says
Savary,
in our journey through Crete; the superiors of which, thinking to amuse us, proposed after supper, that his priests should chaunt the
Kyrie eleison.
We accepted his proposal; and immediately a number of children, deacons, and sub-deacons, made their appearance; and, on a signal given, began the
Kyrie eleison.
They sang through their noses, and produced so frightful a noise, that it was with the utmost difficulty we could refrain from laughing; but, at length, they concluded their discordant jargon, and we clapped our hands in applause. We were now in hopes this entertainment was ended, but he begged us to go through the same ceremony in French. On this, a young man in our company struck up a lively song, and we all joined chorus. The superior and his brethren, were delighted with the sprightliness of our
Kyrie eleison,
but affirmed, their music was more solemn and majestic; to which we readily subscribed. These incidents, says our author, seem trivial; but nothing can better describe the character of the people we visit. The good cheer, choice wines, and excellent beds we met with, were entirely owing to a little well-timed complaisance, and the incense offered to the vanity of our host.
The next morning we intended to have breakfasted at Arcadi, the handsomest monastery in the island; and, as it was only three leagues distant, we expected to reach it in good time; but the roads were dreadful. We continued ascending, for an hour and an half, before we came to the first chain of heights, that run parallel with mount Ida, and on which Arcadi is built. We met with steep paths, cut out of the rock; and our horses were obliged to clamber up steps of marble and granite, without slipping, or stumbling, otherwise we must have been dashed to pieces on the stones, or tumbled headlong into the torrent. I do not exaggerate, says
Savary,
the horror of the roads we had to pass. The first time a man unaccustomed to such ways travels into Crete, he imagines his life in danger at every step, but more experience soon relieves him from his fears: for there is no place so dangerous and dreadful, but may easily be passed with the mules and horses of the country.
We were repaid for our fatigues, by the beauty of the prospects which every where presented themselves to our view. We traversed whole woods of strawberries and privets, which never lose their verdure. Firs, of a prodigious height, rear their heads amid the snows, and are the haunts of herds of wild goats. In the vallies the course of the waters is traced by tufts of myrtle, some branches of which were in flower, and mingled the verdant lustre of their foliage with that of the laurel-rose. The sheep were feeding on the brow of the rocks; and the cottages, surrounded with clumps of trees, formed landscapes, the eye was never wearied with admiring. Sometimes these prospects were sufficiently near to discriminate every object; and at others, distant and obscure, presented only light shades, pleasingly sketched in the horizon.
After a fatiguing journey of three hours, we arrived at the convent of Arcadi; where the superior received us politely, and ordered breakfast to be prepared. This monastery, situated in mount Ida, possesses very extensive tracts of land, which are carefully cultivated by its numerous monks; and the oil, corn, wine and wax, produced on them every year, amounts in value, to considerable sums. The good fathers live much at their ease, and are very hospitable to travellers.
The apartments of this monastery are built round a large court, in which is a handsome church, whither the Greeks of the neighbourhood repair to divine service. Among this numerous body of monks, there are but few priests; (the greater part of them do not enter into holy orders) but some in quality of brethren, and are employed in the most fatiguing labours of agriculture. We visited the cellar, in which a former traveller
(Tournfort)
reckoned a hundred casks of wine; but we saw only forty barrels full; these, however, were of a stupendous bigness. Into this cellar the superior descends at the end of every vintage; and the following is the very singular form of his benediction on the wine. "O Lord God, who lovest men, look down on this wine, and on those that shall drink it. Bless our casks, as thou didst bless the well of Jacob, the pool of Siloam, and the drink of thy holy apostles. O Lord, who didst condescend to be present at the wedding of Cana, where by changing of water into wine, there manifested thy glory to thy disciples, send now thy holy spirit on this wine, and bless it in thy name. Amen."
After a plentiful breakfast, we desired to see the library of the convent, of which we had heard so much from the good monks. It was, as they said, the most valuable, numerous, and complete in the island; we expected therefore to have found some literary treasures; or, at least, the best authors of ancient Greece. They conducted us into an apartment, where we saw about two hundred old volumes, ranged on shelves, and covered with dust, which did not seem to have had the honour of a visit for many a day. They consisted in general of books of devotion, sermons, and controversial divinity. After turning over a great number, without finding any thing that merited our attention, except a manuscript
Homer,
which they would not sell, we went to return our thanks to the superior, and continued our journey.
In our way to these convents, we travelled along the sides of the hills, which terminate mount Ida, to the Southward. Two chains of these hills, formed between us and that mountain, a double amphitheatre, above which it reared its majestic head. We could perceive large clouds of a shining whiteness, ranging themselves around its summit, and circling it with a silver crown; which, illumined by the sun, shone with a wonderful splendor. These clouds, obeying the law of attraction, after encompassing for several hours the head of the mountain, fell in imperceptible drops on all the surrounding objects, and entirely disappeared; others succeeded, and were dissipated in the same manner.
This attractive power, which forces the clouds towards the tops of the lofty mountains, is the origin of springs, fountains, streams, and all the rivers of the globe. In the higher regions of the air, where the rising vapours are condensed by cold, the water of the clouds is converted into hail and snow; but, if they attain only a moderate height, when the cold is not very great, they fall in mists, rains, and copious dews. When the hills are covered with fruits, the springs and rivulets become more numerous, as the leaves of trees possess the peculiar property of attracting the humidity diffused throughout the atmosphere. To procure water for a dry country, nothing more, therefore, would be necessary, than to plant fruit-trees on the hill-tops. When we find the ancients bestowing, the name of rivers on the Glaucus and the Zanthus, which run through Asia-Minor, and are now little more than inconsiderable brooks, we are tempted to suspect them of exaggeration. But, if we reflect, that the hills where these rivers rise, are, at present, stript of their trees and soil, and no longer oppose a barrier to the passage of the clouds, though formerly crowned with lofty forests, which attracted them around their tops, and drew from them all their moisture; we shall find no difficulty in believing, that they, as well as many others, at present, but insignificant rivulets, might anciently, when fed with more copious supplies, well deserve the appellation of rivers.
The diversity of landscapes, which constantly charmed the eye, made us forget the dangers to which we were exposed. For the space of a league, we rode along the slope of a very high hill. On one side, the ground was as perpendicular as a wall; and on the other, was the channel of a torrent, two hundred feet deep, through which the water rushed over the large flint stones, with a violent noise. The path at last grew so narrow, that when once fairly entered, it was impossible to dismount, but at the risk of throwing both ourselves and the horses into the abyss below. In many places, this road was not more than a foot and a half wide; though on the brink of a tremendous precipice, which no one could look down without shuddering. We were now convinced of the excellence of our horses; not one of which so much as made a false step. They seemed to feel the danger, trod with caution, and examined where to put their feet. In a wet place, however, mine made a false slip, and tottered for a moment on the brink of a precipice; but keeping my seat still firm, he recovered himself.
Mount Ida begins near Candia, and stretches from East to West, as far as the White Mountains. It extends from the Northern to the Southern Sea, and is the highest in the island. In many parts of it, snow lies all the year. From its summit, we may discover the sea of Crete, and that of Lybia. The eye wanders over an immense horizon, and discerns many of the scattered islands of the Archipelago; such as Cytherea, Milo and Argentum.
In summer when the snows are melted, vast plains, situated on the declivity of the mountains, afford excellent pasturage for the flocks. On that part of it, opposite to Candia, are forests, consisting chiefly of maple and green oak. The Southern sides abound with the strawberry-tree, privets, and rock-roses. The Eastern brow is beautified with cedars, pines, and cypresses; but on the West, its perpendicular sides present nothing but piles of rocks inaccessible to scale. It is enriched with an infinity of other plants, which would delight the botanist; such as the true melliot, the yellow flowered marjoram, &c. Abundant streams flow on every side from its summit. Some rush in torrents into the vallies, while others water the plains, which produce luxuriant harvests; or, distributed by art, maintain fecundity in the innumerable fruit-trees which go round the villages.
The labyrinth, as it is called, runs under a mountain at the foot of Mount Ida. The opening of it is natural, and not wide. We had brought with us, says
Savary,
the thread of Ariadne, that is four hundred fathoms of twine, to explore it. To discern our way amid this gloomy abode, we each carried a flambeau. Two Greeks bore the clew, which they unfolded or wound up as occasion required. At first, we lost ourselves in different allies without an opening; but, at length discovered the true passage, which is on the right as we enter. We arrive at it by a narrow path, and are obliged to creep on our hands and feet, for the space of an hundred yards, the roof being extremely low. At the end of this narrow passage, the ceiling rises suddenly, and we were able to walk upright, in the midst of the impenetrable darkness that surrounded us, and the innumerable ways which struck off on each side, and crossed each other in different directions Sometimes we were stopped short by a passage without an opening; and at others, after long circuits, were astonished to find ourselves at the cross-way from which we had set out. Frequently, after encircling with our cord a great extent of rock, we were obliged to wind it up, and return the way we came. It is impossible to describe to what a degree these passages are multiplied and crooked; some of them form curves, which lead insensibly to a vast empty space, supported by enormous pillars, whence three or four passages strike off, that conduct to opposite points; others, after long windings, divide into several branches: these again, extend a great length; and, terminated by the rock, oblige the traveller to trace back his way. We walked with precaution in the doublings of this vast labyrinth, amid the eternal darkness that reigns through it, and which our torches could hardly dispel. The precaution we had taken, of proceeding with the thread of Ariadne, and of fastening it at different distances, lest it should break, allowed us to advance further than
Belon, Tournfort,
and
Pocock.
We observed, in several parts of the middle avenue, the cyphers 1700, written with a black pencil, by the hand of the celebrated botanist. An extraordinary circumstance, which he remarks, and which we admired no less than he had done, is the property possessed by the rock, of presenting the names engraved on it in relief.
After straying for a long time, in the fruitful cavern of Minotaur, we arrived at the extremity of the alley, which
Tournfort
followed. There we found a wide space, with cyphers cut in the rock, none of which were of an earlier date than the fourteenth century. There is another, similar to this, on the right. To arrive at this place, we had run out almost all our line, that is to say, about twenty-four hundred feet, without reckoning our various excursions. We remained three hours in the labyrinth, continually walking, without being able to flatter ourselves with having seen every thing.
Several authors, among whom are
Belon
and
Pocock,
pretend, that this labyrinth is no more than a quarry; from which, stones were brought to build the city of Gortyna, situated at many miles distance; the magnificent ruins of which, are still visible. Mr.
Tournfort
has satisfactorily confuted this opinion; he has proved, that the stone of this cavern is too soft to be fit for building; and that it would have cost immense sums to convey it across the steep mountains, that lie between the labyrinth and that city. It might have been much more natural for the inhabitants, to procure their stone from the mountains, in the vicinity of Gortyna. It is much more probable, adds Mr.
Tournfort,
that nature produced the labyrinth, and that the passage at the entrance, has not been altered, to shew posterity what was the state of these subterraneous channels, before they were enlarged by the hand of man.
But for what purpose, says
Savary,
was this labyrinth intended? And was it there that the Minotaur was confined? The discovery of truth, obscured by the lapse of time, gives pleasure to the reader, and amply recompenses the labour of investigation.
In the first place, it is certain that this immense cavern is not the labyrinth formed by
Daedalus,
on the plan of that of Egypt. All the ancient writers attest, that the famous work of that celebrated architect, was situated at Cnossus.
John Tzetzes,
very satisfactorily describes this famous edifice, and informs us of the use for which it was intended.
"Daedalus,
the Athenian, made for King
Minos,
a prison, from which it was impossible to escape. Its numerous windings, were in the form of a snail, and it was called the labyrinth." This labyrinth subsists no longer. It was, indeed, already destroyed, in the days of
Pliny.
An antique gem, corresponding with this description of
Tzetzes,
is still to be seen. Let us proceed to examine that which is still existing.
Taurus,
was the name of one of the principal men of Crete; who, possessing the advantage of a fine person, and having acquired great renown by his military exploits,
Pasiphiae,
wife of
Minos,
king of Crete, became enamoured of him, and had a son by him: upon discovering that transaction,
Minos
would not, however, put him to death; but, according to ancient history, confined him to the mountains to serve the shepherds. In these solitary abodes, he grew wild and fierce, and lived by robbery, and stealing sheep from the flocks. Having learnt, that
Minos
had sent soldiers to take him, he dug a deep cavern, which he made his place of refuge. At length, the king of Crete sent him such criminals, as he wished to punish with death. His ferocity, and this employment, no doubt, procured him the name of
Minotaur,
and induced poets and painters to represent him as a monster, half a man, and half a bull. An ingenious emblem, having reference to his birth, character, and odious services.
Theseus
arriving in the island of Crete, says
Plutarch, Ariadne
fell desperately in love with him. She bore him a son, and taught him how to escape from the winding passages of the labyrinth; and he slew the
Minatour.
To distinguish this cavern, from the famous edifice built by
Daedalus,
at Cnossus,
Claudian
called it the labyrinth of Gortyna, the usual abode of the
Minotaur.
Of the labyrinth of Cnossus,
Claudian
says, "it forms different circuits, which are neither inferior to the art, with which the labyrinth of Gortyna, the usual abode of the
Minotaur
is built, nor the windings of the river Maeander."
We have now thrown all the light we have been able upon this wonderful cavern of antiquity, and shall leave our readers to form their conjectures; only begging leave to remark, that it seems to us singular, that the antique gem of the labyrinth of Cnossus, should have the figure of a Minotaur in the centre.
The origin of Gortyna is uncertain; the opinions of authors varying on this subject. It is, however, of the slightest antiquity.
Homer
speaks of it, as of a powerful city defended by walls. It was a flourishing city when
Lycurgus
travelled into Crete.
Plato
tells us, it was built by a colony from Gortyna, a city of Peloponnesus. The Lethe, this river so celebrated in antiquity, ran near Gortyna. It was called Lethe, because
Harmonia,
the daughter of
Venus,
forgot her husband
Cadmus,
on its banks.
The ruins of Gortyna, cover a vast extent of ground, and enable us to form some idea of its ancient magnificence. Such of its monuments, as still subsist, are not of the highest antiquity. One of the most remarkable, is a gate built with large bricks, which have been formerly covered with free stone. This edifice is of a considerable thickness, and presents an extensive front. It cannot be supposed, more ancient than the time, when
Ptolemy Philopater,
undertook to rebuild the walls of Gortyna. Beyond this gate, we find a large open space, in form nearly of a parallelogram, on each side of which, is a double row of pedestals. The bases of the marble are buried, and the tops appear above the ground. The order in which they are ranged, gives reason to conjecture, they were part of the portico of a temple. At different intervals, we meet with heaps of rubbish, and columns of marble and granite, buried up to the middle of their shafts. The capitals lie near them, broken off, but several of them have none. Near the farther end of these ruins, on the banks of that beautiful river, where
Harmonia
forgot
Cadmus,
we enter a church, one side of which is destroyed. This is probably the ancient cathedral founded by
Titus,
the disciple of
St. Paul.
These ruins do not appear suitable to what might be expected, from the grandeur and magnificence of Gortyna. But we must consider, that the finest marbles have been carried off; that we see, in adjacent villages, ancient columns employed in making gates for the Turkish gardens, and that the greatest part of its ornaments are buried under the earth, which is considerably raised. If the ground were dug into, and proper researches made, we should certainly find statues and valuable antiquities. At present the husbandman passes his plough over them, and covers with his harvest, the ruins of the palaces and temples of Gortyna. Such is the destiny of ancient cities. They are the work of man, and perish like himself. Those which in ages past were the ornament or terror of the world, Thebes, Memphis, and Babylon, are now no more. Can we imagine, that London, that noble city, which contains within itself all the arts, and innumerable inhabitants, will exist for ever. Can we doubt, that the curious traveller shall one day wander amid heaps of rubbish, in search of the situation of her temples, and her palaces? Let us console ourselves: that period is still very remote.
This island is governed by three Pachas, who reside at Candia, Canea, and Rhetimo. The first, who is always a Pacha of three tails, is, as it were, the viceroy of the island. He is invested with the supreme power, has the inspection of the forts and arsenals, nominates to vacant military posts, and to the governments of La Sude, Grabusa, Spina Longua, and Gira Petra. The governors of these forts are called beys. They have under them a governor of the castle, and three general officers; one of whom is general of the artillery, the other of the cavalry, and the third of the Janissaries. The council of the Pacha consists of a
Kyaia,
who has great influence in all public affairs, and likewise of the principal officers of the army in the district.
The great officers of the law are the Muphti, the supreme head of religion, and the Cadi. The former expounds the law, relative to the partition of property among children, inheritances, and marriages; in a word, all those laid down by
Mahomet,
in the Koran; and decides on every thing respecting the Mahometan religion. The Cadi cannot pass sentence in disputes originating in these laws, until he has obtained in writing, the opinion of the Muphti. His office therefore is to receive declarations, complaints, the presents of individuals, and to decide in the common cases of litigation. The Pacha must consult these persons, before he can legally put a Turk to death; but when he has attained the dignity of three-tails, he often raises himself above the laws, and at once dictates the sentence of death, and orders it to be carried into execution by his own authority.
Each mosque has its Imam, a sort of curate, who performs divine service; and school-masters are distributed in different quarters of the town. These men are generally respected in Turkey, and bear the title of Effendi, a title of honour bestowed on persons considered as deserving respect.
The garrison of Candia consists of forty-six companies, composing an army of about ten thousand men. All these troops are not in the town, but would be collected in an instant. They receive their pay regularly, and punctually, every three months; except the Janissaries, whose officers alone are paid. The different appointments of officers in this militia, do not depend on the Pacha. All promotions are regulated by a council of each company, consisting of the officers on duty, and the veterans. These posts can only be held two years; except that of captain, which is purchased at Constantinople, and held for life. The
Ousta,
or cook, is continued likewise in his employment, as long as the company are contented with his services. There is a chaplain, or Iman, to every company.
The garrisons of Canea, and Rhetimo, regulated on the same plan, are much less numerous. The first consists of about three thousand men, the other of fifteen hundred. But as all the male children of the Turks become members of the corps of Janissaries, at their birth, this number would greatly augment in time of war. There is not much indeed to fear from them, the greetest part having scarcely ever seen a musquet fired. They are never exercised in military evolutions, and are totally ignorant of that dreadful art, which in our days has been brought to such perfection; and which, reduced to certain rules, triumphs without difficulty over blind force and numbers.
A Pacha, of Canea, who distinguished himself in the last war with the Russians, was desirous to try the skill of the gunners of that garrison. He ordered a bark to be anchored, at the distance of half a mile from the walls, and a large barrel placed on the deck. The sea was perfectly calm, and the mark exceedingly distinct, but notwithstanding a reward was offered to the person who should knock it down, the gunners kept firing the whole day, without touching either the barrel or the bark.
The Pachas of Canea, and Rhetimo, are not less absolute within the limits of their governments than the Pachas of Candia. They enjoy the same privileges, and their council is composed of the same officers. These governors are only intent on rapidly enriching themselves, and use every means of extorting money from the Greeks, who are oppressed in a manner not to be described. But to say the truth, these unhappy people stretch out their willing necks to the chain that weighs them down. Their envious disposition is continually arming them against each other. If one of them has the good fortune to acquire a little property, others endeavour to discover something of which to accuse him before the Pacha, who avails himself of these dissentions to rob both parties. It seems as if the Greeks, debased by their misfortunes, were no longer capable of a generous sentiment; nor are they in the least amended by the cruel examples they have every day before their eyes.
It is not therefore surprising, that under this barbarous government the number of Greeks should daily diminish. At present Crete is supposed to contain, at most, only one hundred and fifty thousand Greeks, sixty-five thousand of whom pay the capitation; a tribute paid to the Grand Signior by all his subjects not Mahometans; but levied, as we have before observed, only on men arrived at maturity, women and children being excepted. The Turks, though they have only possessed the island one hundred and twenty years, or thereabouts, not being subject to the same oppression, have multiplied and flourished on the ruins of the vanquished. Their number amounts to two hundred thousand. Is it not astonishing, says
Savory,
to find so few inhabitants on this island, which is above two hundred and fifty leagues in circumference? May not this diminution of men be considered a sufficient proof of a destructive government?
The hundred cities of Crete have been celebrated by the writers of antiquity; and geography has preserved to us their names and situations. Several of these contained thirty thousand citizens; if therefore, we allow six thousand to each, this calculation for the hundred cities, will give six hundred thousand inhabitants: we may also estimate the Cretans dispersed in the towns and villages at the same number; which, added together, will make twelve hundred thousand. This cannot be esteemed an exaggerated calculation. When the Venetians were in possession of the kingdom of Candia, it is said to have contained nine hundred and ninety-six villages.
Thus we find, that when Crete was a free country, it maintained near a million more of inhabitants than it does at present. But since those happy times, this unfortunate island has been deprived of her laws by the Romans; groaned under the disastrous reigns of the corrupt princes of the Lower Empire; been ravaged by the Arabs, during a hundred and twenty years; exchanged their government for that of the Venetians; and at length has been finally subjected to the despotism of the Turks; who, in all the countries they have conquered, have occasioned a frightful depopulation.
When Candia was in possession of the Venetians, the towns of Siria, Gira Petra, Sisims and Sphachia, were crouded with inhabitants; at present they are wretched villages, with ruined fortresses and harbours, nearly choaked up. Candia, the capital of the kingdom, was very populous, and carried on an extensive commerce in wines, corn, silks and wax. It was indeed a second Venice, but is now almost deserted.
It is true, that the Turks, during a five and twenty years war, destroyed many thousands of the Canadians; and that the plague, the constant attendant of their armies, followed them into this island, and was the destruction of a still greater number; but if the Ottoman government had considered men of any importance, it might have been able in the course of a whole century of peace and tranquillity, to repair their ravages.
The Turks have left the Greeks the free exercise of their religion, but do not allow them to repair their churches and monasteries, without permission, which is only to be obtained by money, and brings in considerable sums to the Pachas. They have, as formerly, twelve bishops; the principal of whom assumes the title of Archbishop of Gortyna. He resides at Candia, which is the seat of the metropolitan church. Nominated himself by the patriarch of Constantinople, he fills up all the vacant sees of the island. He bears the triple crown on his tiara; signs in red; and is responsible for all the debts of the clergy. To fulfil these engagements, he levies heavy contributions on the other bishops; and especially on the monasteries. He is acknowledged as chief of the Greeks, whom he protects as far as his feeble influence extends. To him the government applies in matters of importance; and he alone, of his whole nation, has the privilege of entering a town on horseback.
It may not be here amiss to give some account of the ancient government of this island, so celebrated in antiquity; a government that
Lycurgus
took for his model in the institution he framed for Lacedemon; and which
Strabo
has thought an account of, not unworthy his pen, and preserved its leading features in his immortal work.
Ten magistrates were annually chosen in a national assembly, by the plurality of voices, who were called
Cosmi.
They had the management of war, and all the most important business. They possessed the right of choosing counsellors from among the old men; and these, in number twenty-eight, composed the senate of Crete, and were chosen from among those who had passed the office of
Cosmi,
or persons eminently distinguished by their merit and unimpeached integrity. These senators held their dignity for life; great deference was paid to their opinion; and nothing finally determined without consulting them. The wisdom of the Legislator had intended them for a counterpoise to the ambition of the ten chiefs, whose power was still farther circumscribed, by limiting the duration of their magistracy to one year.
This precaution did not end here, as the votes of the people might be improperly obtained, and their choice consequently fall on a person unworthy of so honourable a post; he very wisely provided, that whoever should disgrace the dignity of the
Cosmi,
might be removed, either in an assembly of the people, or by his colleagues only. So excellent a constitution caused
Plato
to say, "The republic which approaches too much to a monarchy, and that which admits too unrestrained a liberty, are equally remote from the just medium. O Cretans! O Lacedemonians! Ye have avoided these two rocks, and established your states on the most solid foundations."
Nothing can be more simple than this form of government. A free people, conscious they were unable to govern themselves, name magistrates, into whose hands they transfer their authority; these chiefs, invested with regal power, elect senators to aid them with their counsels; which counsellors again can decide nothing of themselves; but their office is perpetual, which encreases the respect paid them, and enables them to extend their knowledge and information. The ten chiefs of the republic have a powerful motive to incite them to act worthy the honourable station in which they are placed; as, on the one hand, they are checked by the fear of disgrace; and on the other, encouraged by the hope of one day becoming members of the national council.
This republic, which was as ancient as the siege of Troy, still flourished in the time of
Julius Caesar.
We know of no other of so long continuance. The Legislator founding the happiness of the Cretans on liberty, gave them laws and institutions fitted to form men capable of defending their freedom. All the citizens were soldiers, and all exercised and expert in the art of war; for we even find that foreigners resorted to Crete, to be exercised in that art.
"Philopoemen",
says
Plutarch,
"not enduring to remain inactive, and ardently desirous of acquiring knowledge in the profession of arms, embarked for Crete; where, having exercised himself among that warlike people, well versed in every military art, and accustomed to lead a frugal life, he returned to the Achozans, and so much distinguished himself by the knowledge he had acquired, that he was immediately appointed general of the cavalry."
On the other hand the Legislator, persuaded that conquests were usually only acts of violence and injustice, which frequently enfeeble, and almost always corrupted the morals of the victorious nation, endeavoured to prevent the Cretans from trying to subdue foreign countries. And from the time the government of the country first became republican, till it was attacked by the Romans, we never find the Cretans to have attempted any foreign invasion; an honour reserved exclusively to them among all the people celebrated in history. Individuals might indeed serve in the armies of other states; the kings and princes of which, knowing their bravery and skill in archery, strove who should first induce them to enter into their pay; as each was desirous to have in his army a body of Cretan bowmen, since the whole world could not produce any more expert. "The arrows of Gortyna", says
Claudian,
"happily directed, carry certain wounds, and never fail."
The love of war did not extinguish in the Cretans that exquisite sensibility which made them cultivate and encourage the fine arts. "The Cretans displayed their munificence to
Homer,
by giving him a thousand crowns; and, glorying in a generosity not to be surpassed, preserved the memory of their duration, by a public inscription. In Crete, adds
Ptolemy,
men are still more anxious to cultivate their minds, than to exercise their bodies. Therefore, when discord reigned among them, the voice of wisdom, and the charms of poetry, brought them back to reason.
Thales,
of Gortyna, the instructor of
Lycurgus,
was one of their most celebrated philosophers, poets, and legislators; and he most successfully applied his knowledge and talents to restore concord to his fellow-citizens. "His poetry", says
Plutarch,
in the life of
Lycurgus,
"consisted of discourses in verse, exhorting the people to unanimity and obedience to their superiors; he possessed the art of conveying, in the most harmonious metre, the most solid and beneficial instruction. So great was the effect of his poetry, that his hearers, who found their understanding as well as their ears, equally persuaded and charmed, gradually suffered all their animosity to subside; and, enamoured with the blessings of peace, which he painted in the most lively colours, forgot their intestine hatreds, and ranged themselves under the standard of concord." Men, over whom poetry and music had such power, could not he enemies to pleasure: and we accordingly find it to have been a custom with them to mark their happy days with white stones, and their unhappy ones with black. At the end of the year, they examined the number of these stones, and only esteemed themselves to have lived the days denoted by the white ones. Hence the inscription frequent on their tombs:
He lived so many days; he existed, so many.
At length the fatal period arrived, when the Romans, elated with their victories, and proud of their power, aspired to the empire of the world, and would no longer admit of any distinction among the surrounding nations, but that of slaves or subjects. Since that period, that is, during a space of nineteen hundred years, the Cretans have ceased to be a nation, and have gradually lost their courage, their virtues, their sciences, and their arts. This deplorable debasement can only be attributed to the extinction of their liberty. So true is it, that man is born for liberty; and, that deprived of this support, received from nature to sustain his weakness, his genius expires, and his courage languishes, till he sinks to the lowest point of degradation.
The olive-tree, that precious tree, consecrated to
Minerva,
has almost disappeared from Attica. The Albanians and Turks, who have alternately ravaged Greece, seem to have been intent on destroying it. Within twenty years, they have cut down two hundred thousand feet of these trees. Thus has the Morea, so rich and flourishing, when possessed by the Venetians, become a poor and miserable country.
The island of Crete, has not in this respect suffered the same fate. The olive-trees, which delight in a sandy soil, a mild temperature, and the vicinity of the sea, grow in abundance on the hills, and in the plains. The cold is never severe enough to injure them, and the heat is always sufficient to ripen their fruit. We meet with some that seem co-eval with the soil that bears them; they grow to a vast size, and attain the height of fifty feet. Their produce constitutes the chief wealth of the inhabitants, and their principal branch of commerce. The crops, however, are not equally abundant; in two years, one is generally excellent, and the other moderate. Exclusive of the prodigious consumption of oil by the inhabitants, besides what the Turks of Canea, instructed by a native of Provence, make use of in their manufactories of soap, which they export throughout the Levant, the Turks annually load four and twenty ships with oil.
The inhabitants of Candia had no manufacture in their island; and it is not long since a native of Provence taught them to make soap, of which they have now several manufactories at Canea. This betrayer of his country's interest, has greatly injured the trade of Marseilles.
The total exports from the island of Crete,
Savary
estimates at little more than a hundred thousand pounds; which is very inconsiderable for an island of such great extent. The island, says the above author, does not contain a sufficient number of inhabitants for all the lands to be cultivated. Plains of three or four leagues extent, and watered by fertilizing streams, are frequently to be seen without the slightest traces of cultivation. The indolent Turk passes his life in the midst of his possessions, without thinking of improvement; and should the Greek obtain permission to clear out a piece of ground, after bedewing it with the sweat of his brow, at the moment he is to enjoy the fruit of his industry, his powerful neighbour wrests from him, the produce of his labour.
When the kingdom of Candia was under the government of the republic of Venice, it produced great quantities of grain; amply supplied the wants of the inhabitants; and made considerable exportations to foreign countries. At present the island is obliged to import corn. This is not to be attributed to any change of the soil, which is still warmed by the same sun, and watered by the same streams. The tyranny of the Turkish government must alone be considered the cause.
Corn, says
Pcysonnel,
is not scarce in Candia, the plains of Messara, and several other parts of the island, furnish it in great abundance, and the annual harvests are quite sufficient for the maintenance of the inhabitants; but, as the corn is incomparably fine, the Agas export a great quantity: European, Turkish, and Greek vessels, are perpetually engaged in this illicit commerce; on which account, Candia is frequently obliged to depend on the Morea for subsistence. Oil, and soap, indeed, compose the two principal branches of commerce in this island; but, it likewise produces an infinity of articles of importance, as very fine silk, wax, honey sufficient, cotton for the consumption of the country, and cheeses; which a contraband trade exports to Egypt, the coast of Barbary, Italy, and Provence.
Objects of the last importance, adds
Savary,
which would infinitely extend the commerce of the Cretans, are almost totally neglected. The mulberry-tree thrives admirably in the island; and nothing would be more easy than to rear silk-worms. The little cotton which is cultivated there, is of a very fine quality; and the wool, though not remarkable for its fineness, is so for its quantity; yet there is not a single manufacture in the country, which may employ these valuable materials! Little attention, therefore, is paid to the silk-worm: cotton and flax are cultivated in small quantities; and never will it occur to the imagination of a Turk, that under a mild and favourable sky, which would allow the flocks to be folded the whole year in the open air; it might be possible, by paying due attention to their feeding, and properly crossing the breed, to obtain wool, even equal to that of Spain.
What advantages might not a polished nation derive from an island, which, after satisfying the most essential wants of man, would still farther supply him with every thing that contributes to utility, ease, and even luxury! How might they extend their various branches of commerce! What benefits might they not derive from manufactures calculated to give them value! The delicious wines of the country, so little known, would be in request over the whole world. Forests of pines, oaks, and cedars, under proper management, would be of use for ship-building. The husbandmen, excited by the hope and certainty of enjoying the fruit of their labours, would clear out vast tracts of waste land, now abandoned to sterility; would sow every species of grain, increase their plantations, and after enriching the state, live in plenty, in the bosom of their numerous families. Men would multiply without end, and in the finest climate in the world; villages, and impoverished towns, would again become populous cities; the arts would again return to their native country, and again flourish; in a word, the superb island of Crete, would once more revive from her ashes. To produce this extraordinary, this happy change, nothing is necessary but the encouragement and protection of a wise government.
These reflections are not the dreams of a heated imagination, or of a traveller who has hastily passed through the country; but of one who continued in the island fifteen months; who visited its mountains and the plains; who was well acquainted with its productions; who knows in what they are susceptible of improvement, and who can take upon him to assert, that in the whole world there is no country that combines so many real advantages. The lofty trees of the frozen regions, crown the summits of the mountains, while less lofty hills are covered with the fruit-trees in our climates; the declivities are embellished with vineyards, producing wines equally various as agreeable; the vallies abound in trees bearing delicious fruits; many of which thrive under the torrid zone, while the plains are enriched with every species of grain the earth can produce. Let it be observed too, says
Savary,
that nature has placed the finest harbours on the East, West, and North sides of the island, as if its commerce was destined to extend to every quarter of the globe.
CHAP. XXXII.
Cyprus.
THIS island has made such a conspicuous figure in the page of history, that an account of it must prove highly interesting to those, who are fond of researches into the situation of remote nations. It lies under the fifty-second degree of East longitude, and the thirty-fifth of North latitude, between the coast of Syria, and that of Cilicia, at present called Caramania; being in the most Easterly part of the Levant. This country was formerly known by a great many different names.
Pliny
calls it Acamantis, Cerastis, Asphelia, Amathusia, Macaria, Cryptos, and Colinia. In other historians, it may be found under the denomination of Chetime, Erosa, Paphos, and Salamis; and in the poets under that of Cythera: the latter made it the birth-place of
Venus,
and the abode of the graces; hence, those charming descriptions which they have given of it; and those enchanting scenes, of which, according to their account, it was the theatre. Their ingenious painting has perpetuated the illusion; and the names of Pathos, Cythera, and Amathonte; those spots, more peculiarly consecrated to the goddess of pleasure, still awaken the most agreeable and delightful ideas.
It contained formerly, nine kingdoms, tributary to Egypt, and soon after to the Romans. From the emperors of the West, it passed to those of the East; but was taken from them by the Arabs, under the reign of
Heraclius.
A prince of the family of the Comenii, fired with ambition, seized on the whole island, and established himself sovereign of it. In 1191, our
Richard
I. deprived him of it, together with his life. Being afterwards sold by this monarch to the
Templars,
difference of religion caused the inhabitants to rebel against their new sovereigns; and, the knights apprehending they should not be able to retain possession of it, delivered back the island to
Richard,
who renounced it in favour of
Guy de Lusignan.
In 1480, it came under the dominion of the Venetians, and was taken from them the succeeding century by the Turks.
This beautiful island is about two hundred and twenty miles in length; sixty-five in breadth, and about six hundred in circumference, including the gulphs. A chain of mountains, the highest of which are Olympus, St. Croix, and Bussavent, divide it from East to West.
The largest of its plains is that of Messarea; where the wandering eye loses itself, in an extent of eighty miles in length, and thirty in breadth; while a variety of objects add to the pleasure arising from a view of this immense horizon.
There are few rivers, or torrents here, the beds of which, even in winter, are not entirely dry; and this arises from the great scarcity of rain. The heavens are, as it were, of brass; and historians assert, that in the reign of
Constantine,
no rain fell in this island for the space of thirty years. It may easily be conceived, how injurious a drought of such continuance, must have been to vegetation.
There were formerly in this island, a great number of cities; of which, at present, nothing remains but the names, and a few ruins. There are some, for the ancient situation of which, it would be in vain to search. Famagusta, and Nicosia, are the only places of importance; unless Larnic, where the European merchants have their factory, may be classed in the same rank. Besides these, Cyprus contains seven citadels, which are commanded by the same number of governors.
This island has produced many great men, distinguished by their birth, their virtues, and their knowledge.
Strabo
does not hesitate to say, that in this respect it is superior to most of the Grecian islands.
Some authors assert, that the air of this island is bad and unhealthful. This prejudice, prevents many strangers from remaining long enough in it to make the experiment. But those who have inhabited the island for a twelvemonth have been convinced of its wholesomeness, and of the error of ancient writers.
Tertian and quartan fevers are, it is true, very common and very obstinate in Cyprus, and in all the Levant; but these do not so much arise from the malignity of the air, because it is easy to avoid them. The excessive heat of the climate, causes an abundant perspiration. If people in this situation, are so imprudent to expose themselves to the least breath of wind, the pores become shut, and perspiration is stopped, which infallibly brings on a fever. Another cause of these fevers is, the immoderate use of strong liquors, and fruits, particularly cucumbers and melons. Even the inhabitants seldom escape this epidemical disorder, especially in summer; but by slight bleeding, and leaving nature to herself, they are cured without physic, or any other regimen, than that of abstaining from fruits.
This island was formerly, one of the richest and most fertile in the world. It abounded with mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, marcasite, rock alum, and even emeralds; but of these ancient productions, nothing remains besides the remembrance, and the places from which they were procured. The present government fetters curiosity, and forbids every kind of research. Some centuries ago, a great quantity of oil was made here; but in the time of the Venetians, a spirit of speculation abolished that useful branch, and the cultivation of olives was abandoned for that of cottons. Saffron, rhubarb, and other valuable productions, are at present totally neglected. Deer, roebucks, asses, wild bears, and a great number of the most beautiful pheasants, once enlivened the plains of Cyprus; but they are now all destroyed; and it would seem as if these animals had refused to embellish a country, which is no longer the seat of liberty.
The principal productions of the island are, at present, silk, cotton, wool, nutmegs, wines, turpentine, kermes, laudanum, wheat, barley, coloquintida, pitch, tar, glass-wort, salt, St. John's, bread, timber, umbre, and green earth.
The soil here, likewise, produces pulse and all kinds of wild herbs; a knowledge of which, would be a valuable acquisition in botany; but there are few trees, and consequently few fruits. Nature, however, to make amends for this loss, has been exceedingly lavish in flowers; and the most beautiful and delicate plants of Italy, France, and Holland, may easily be naturalized. Hyacinths, anemonies, ranunculuses, and narcissuses, both single and double, which require so much care in Europe, thrive even upon the mountains without cultivation; and render the beautiful plains of this island, like an immense parterre. Nothing can be more agreeable than to walk near the spots where they grow, at sun-rising, and sun-setting; when the odoriferous particles, put in motion by the heat of the sun, or condensed by the coolness of the evening, convey to the organs of smell, a mixture of every perfume: it is then that the enchanting dreams of fabulous antiquity are realized; and that this island seems still the abode of pleasure, and birth-place of love.
Among the wild flowers, there is one called melissa, or the bee-flower, which indeed has the shape of that industrious animal: its root may be ranked among the class of bulbous plants. The juice of it is an excellent specific for healing wounds.
The Cypriots cultivate a plant, which they call chenna; which is as tall and big as the pomegranate, and resembles it in its trunk and branches; its leaves are like those of the myrtle, and its flowers like a bunch of grapes in blossom. An oil is extracted from the fruit, which has all the properties of balm. The leaves, either dried or green, when boiled in water, communicate a beautiful orange dye to cloth or stuff. The Cypriots use it for dying their hair, which once impregnated with this colour, retains it for a long time after. The Turkish, and some of the Greek women, rub their nails and the palms of their hand with it; from an idea that it will render their skin white, and give a higher bloom to the carnation of their cheeks. In every country of the world, one part of the women have endeavoured to add to the graces of nature, and the other to repair her faults; all the scents and cosmetics invented by quackery, have been often put to the proof; but they have never been able to cure the insurmountable credulity of the sex.
The Venetians, when masters of this island, used to paint their horses; but this custom is only continued in regard to white greyhounds and sheep.
For want of hands, great part of this island is uncultivated, and produces nothing but thyme and other odoriferous herbs, which perfume the surrounding atmosphere. The luxuriance of nature, left to herself, sufficiently shews what happy effects agriculture would have on these fertile desarts.
In the side of a mountain, near Paphos, is a cavern, which produces the most beautiful rock crystal. On account of its brilliancy, it has been called the Paphian diamond: it is cut and polished in the same manner as other precious stones. People are forbid, under severe punishment, to carry away the smallest piece, and the mountain is surrounded with guards.
A similar prohibition has been made respecting the stone amianthus, or asbestos, of which there is a quarry, near the village of Paleandros. Incombustible cloth, it is said, has been made of it; and fire, instead of diminishing, increases its whiteness. This fact, founded on the relation of
Pliny,
and
Dioscorides,
is in the opinion of the moderns, one of those errors so common in the philosophy of the ancients. The Greeks, at present, call this stone
caristia,
and some others the cotton stone.
There are found here also red jaspers, agates, and three different kinds of stone. The hills nearest to Larnic, consist wholly of tale, which serves for the composition of that plaister used in all the houses of the country.
No wild animals are seen here but foxes and hares: the odoriferous plants on which the latter feed, give their flesh an excellent taste, and a most agreeable flavour. Hunting is the chief diversion of the Europeans in this island; and they maintain, at a very great expence, horses, and packs of hounds. No season can check their activity; troops of hunters repair to the field, by break of day, and pursue, without intermission, their fugitive inhabitants.
The most common of the winged tribe are rails, partridges, snipes, quails, and thrushes. Of water-fowl, there is great abundance. Rails and partridges cost about two-pence a-piece, snipes are something dearer, as the inhabitants account them a delicacy. All other birds are so cheap, that they are rather given away than sold. The beccaficos, and ortolans, are remarkably fat; and so numerous, that the peasants think they make a good market when they can dispose of them at the rate of a penny a dozen. They are generally caught in greatest abundance near the village of S. Nappa; a part of which they carry to the city, parboiling the rest, and putting them into vinegar, with some ingredients proper for preserving them. In this manner they keep them a whole year, and sell them at the same price as the rest. The grand vent for these birds is among the Europeans of Larnic, who send them to France, England, Holland, and various parts of the Ottoman empire. There are exported every year from this island, four hundred barrels, containing from two to four hundred birds in each. The usual method of dressing them in Cyprus, is to split them in the middle, and put them on the gridiron, with a slice of bread, and a little parsley: when broiled in this manner, they make a most delicious meal.
In the months of July and August, the fields are covered with flocks of vultures; but it appears this island is only a resting place in their passage to some other country. All other birds, the beccafico not excepted, lay their eggs here, though it is pretended that none of their eggs were ever seen in the island; but this is no more true with respect to Cyprus, than of a thousand other places, where the same thing has been asserted with as little foundation.
Among the venomous animals is a kind of serpent, the Greek name of which signifies the
deaf-snake;
its bite is mortal; the body is about two feet long, and an inch in diameter; the colour is black and yellow, and it has two small horns on its head. The Greeks have given it a very improper name, it being by no means deaf. It generally frequents corn fields; and the reapers, besides wearing buskins, six small bells to their scythes, in order to frighten it away. This precaution would be entirely useless, if nature had deprived it of the organs of hearing. At the village of Tremitice is a Greek family, in whom the virtue of curing this bite is hereditary. I saw two people wounded, says
Mariti,
apply to a relation of this family, who cured them merely by touching them. All those who despised this remedy, became victims to their incredulity, and died some time after. It is certain that all the virtue consists in a secret known only to these people; for, in touching the wound, they dexterously apply a certain powder, which causes a most acute pain, but it vanishes in a moment.
The tarantula of Cyprus, is a kind of spider, of a brown colour, inclining to a black, and covered with long hair; its bite is not mortal, but it is dangerous; and often occasions excruciating pain, accompanied with a fever.
That of the galley is incurable. This is a thin flat animal, about a foot and a half long; of a yellow colour; and furnished with a multitude of legs, which it moves uniformly, like the oars of a galley; hence it has acquired that name.
There is here also a black serpent, about a yard, or a yard and a half long; but it is not venomous; people take it in their hands without danger; and, having stripped off its skin, broil the flesh, which is said to be extremely well tasted.
The horses of Cyprus are not proper for the course; but at Paphos, there are some highly esteemed for their pace, called
ciapcun;
a kind of accelerated trot, which they will continue for six hours together, over hills and plains, without fatiguing the traveller. The asses have the same pace, as well as the mules, which are reckoned the best in the whole Levant.
The oxen here are lean, and of a small size. The Greeks never eat beef; they hold it as a maxim, that the animal which tills the ground, is the servant of man, and the companion of his daily labours, and, ought not to be used for food.
The mutton is juicy and tender: the tails of some of the sheep, which are remarkably fine weigh upwards of fifty pounds; and there are many that have three, or even five horns. Nothing can be more beautiful than the flocks of goats seen in this island. The great cleanliness of this animal, the variety of its colours, and its spotted skin, afford a spectacle truly interesting. When suspended from a rock, or traversing the plains, its agility, and wanton gambols, form an agreeable contract with the dignity of other animals.
The greyhounds here, are excellent for the chace, and the lightning is scarce more rapid than their flight; no sooner have they darted forward, than they are seen on their prey; and, on this account, those who wish to enjoy long sport, take care to chuse the heaviest. Greyhounds of a good breed have their ears and tail white, and exceedingly soft; their thighs long, nervous and robust; and the rest of their body red.
CHAP. XXXIII.
Cities, Manners and Customs, &c.
HAVING now given a general view of the face of the country, in this celebrated island of antiquity, and of its productions; we shall proceed in this chapter to speak of the different cities; and the manners and customs of the inhabitants.
Nicosia, Farmagusta, and Larnic, seem at present the most important towns in this island. Of the ancient city of Cithera, so celebrated in the works of the poets, and consecrated to the goddess of beauty, no vestiges remain; nor are there any of the ancient Pathos, which contained the celebrated temple of
Venus,
and was, together with the city, destroyed by an earthquake.
Nicosia stands in the centre of the island, in the middle of a vast plain, and is surrounded by hills and mountains; which bound it on all sides, at the distance of ten miles.
From the time of
Constantine,
till 1567, the circumference of this city was ten miles; but the Venetians reduced it to three, and fortified it, thinking by this means the conquest of it would be more difficult. Nothing was respected: they even demolished temples, palaces, and the most beautiful monuments; and the gloomy policy of this people soon reduced Nicosia to a heap of ruins. There are still to be seen the foundations of a citadel, erected by king
James
I. of the
Lusignans,
and the remains of a conventual church, in which were buried several sovereigns; and among others,
Hugo
IV. to whom
Boccace
dedicated his book on the genealogy of the gods.
A river, named Pedicus, ran through the ancient city; but in 1567, its course was changed. At present it is almost entirely dry; and the little water seen in it during winter, refreshes the neighbouring plains.
The city of Nicosia, under the family of the
Lusignans,
was the residence of the kings, and the see of an archbishop. It contained a great many monasteries, three hundred churches, and a number of palaces and public buildings. The year 1570, was fatal to this city. In the month of June, of the same year, the Turks entered Cyprus, with a numerous army, and after a siege of forty-five days, in which the inhabitants performed prodigies of valour, Nicosia was taken by a general assault. Of fifty thousand people, who had retired within the walls for shelter, twenty thousand were massacred, and the rest put in irons.
Between the gate of Famagusta, and that of Paphos, are several tombs raised on a bastion, one of which, exceedingly beautiful, and of the finest marble, is said to be that of the officer, who first planted the Ottoman standard on the walls.
The most beautiful edifice in this city, is, without doubt, the church of St.
Sophia,
where the kings of Cyprus were formerly crowned. It is built in the Gothic style, and consists of three large naves. It contains the tombs of the
Lusignans,
and of several ancient Cypriots, and noble Venetians. As age has effaced the inscriptions, they are absolutely unintelligible; and the figures on the stones are so much mutilated, that they cannot be distinguished.
The church of St.
Nicholas,
is, at present, the besisten, a kind of hall, where all sorts of provisions are sold. The principal merchants likewise assemble here, to transact business. When I beheld a croud of these merchants assembled, in this ancient temple, says
Mariti,
I could not help reflecting on that strange succession of events, which puts conquerors into the place of the conquered; converts a church into an exchange; and makes an abode of peace, set apart for prayer and devotion, the centre of all the petty interests of mankind.
The seraglio, is the palace of the Muhassil. The entrance is through a large court, around which, are various buildings; and at the bottom, the stables. This edifice is built in the Gothic taste, and was the royal residence in the time of the Christians: it has experienced so many changes, under a succession of bashaws, that its original appearance is almost destroyed. In the neighbouring square, is a Turkish fountain, affording excellent water, for which this city is famous.
From the ruins of the ancient buildings, some idea may be formed of what this city originally was; it plainly appearing, the streets were spacious enough to display the magnificence of the palaces and building with which it was embellished. This mode of building has been neglected, and there is now no regular plan. The greater part of the houses are perfect huts, which destroy the charm arising from uniformity, and make a ridiculous contract with the superb structures near them.
The principal officers of the porte, to superintend the government of the island, reside in this city. It is also the residence of the principal Greek and Arminian families; who, by their different employments, depend on the Turkish government.
The chief branch of trade is cotton, cloth, manufactured in the city, though most of the other manufactures are carried on in the neighbouring villages. The Turkey leather of this place, has a more brilliant and lively colour than that of Barbary; and the painted cottons, instead of losing their splendor, by being washed with soap, become more beautiful. The dye of the Bucassins, a kind of stuffs, is composed of a mixture of the root of Boia, and ox's blood; this red colour, well imprinted, never fades.
The country about Nicosia, is lively and animated. From the top of the ramparts, may be seen a great number of hamlets and villages; some of which, are very populous and flourishing. The inhabitants do not confine themselves to agriculture; but spin cotton, and manufacture cloth, which they afterwards sell in the capital. The greater part of these villages, are ornamented with Greek churches, and groves of mulberry-trees, which were formerly more numerous than they are at present.
The mulberries in Cyprus, are planted at an equal distance from each other, in strait lines; and, forming a small square grove, composed of one, two, three, and even five thousand plants. They are somewhat more than five feet in height, and about two feet in circumference. These trees grow naturally taller; but at Cyprus, the people lop the branches, that they may have the leaves to give to their silk worms. Thus, these trees are not suffered to grow old, nor does the pruning knife even respect their first shoots: care, therefore, is taken every year to plant new ones, in order to supply a sufficiency of leaves. No other attention is paid to them, than to water them once or twice a day in summer. A small reservoir, made in the form of a vase, is dug round each tree; and the water being conveyed into it, by small canals, serves to refresh the roots.
The city of Famagusta, was formerly called Arsinoe, from the name of the sister of
Ptolemy Philadelphus,
who laid the foundation of it. The name of Famagusta, comes originally from Amocusta, which signifies
built in the sand;
and was given it, on account of the thin sandy earth that surrounds it. This city is situated on the eastern coast of the island; it is built on a rock, and is two miles in circumference. The walls are thick, strongly built, and flat on the top. They are surrounded by a deep ditch, cut out of the solid rock, and are flanked by twelve enormous towers; the sides of which, are four paces in thickness, and enclose a circle five paces in diameter. In 1571, this city, which may be called the key of the island, was taken by the Turks, after a siege of ten months. The Ottoman army consisted of two hundred thousand men. In the ten months, during which the siege was carried on, the Turks fired five hundred and forty thousand bombs. At present, the remains of them may be seen in the neighbouring gardens and fields; and in the ditches, which surround the city, where they are still lying in heaps.
We may form some idea of the bravery of the Venetians, from the number of Turks who were killed before the place. The garrison consisted of scarcely four thousand men; and yet they destroyed above seventy-five thousand Turks.
Famagusta, in its external appearance, is still in the same state as formerly. The ditch is entirely dry; and the walls are in good condition, except a few towers which were damaged by the enemies cannon, and which have not been repaired.
The interior part of the city, exhibits a very ruinous appearance. The number of churches demolished is immense. A very small spot only, contained two hundred; whereas, at present, there are scarce so many inhabitants in the whole city.
At the distance of six miles from Famagusta, stood the ancient Salamis, which owed its origin to
Teucer,
whom his father drove from the island of Salamis, his native country. This illustrious exile, when at a distance from the spot which had given him birth, wished, at least, to have an image of it, and built this new Salamis, mentioned by
Horace.
No edifice has survived the wreck of time, that can give us any idea of this city. Nothing is to be seen but scattered columns; heaps of stone embrowned by age; and the ruins of a building, supposed to be a temple.
Salamis can boast of having produced a great number of illustrious men. It was the country of
Aristo,
the historian, of whom
Strabo
speaks.
Solon,
one of the Grecian sages, is believed to have been originally from this city.
Cleobulus
was born at Salamis, as was
Neocrion,
who commanded the naval army of
Alexander the Great; cum multis aliis.
Larnic, distant from the port of Salines, about half a league, is situated to the North of the ancient Citium; and even occupies a part of the ground on which it once stood. It lies in the Southern part of the island. Its origin is not precisely known; but may be attributed to the proximity of the sea, and the materials found in the ruins of Citium. The port of Salines, is one of the most flourishing in the kingdom; this is owing, no doubt, to its happy situation, and its proximity to Larnic, the centre of the commerce of Cyprus. This place was formerly resorted to by people from all countries; and the Cypriots still regret those days of splendor; when, amidst so many nations, customs, and different languages; each of them could, like the ancient philosopher, call himself a citizen of the world. Since that period, things are greatly changed. When I beheld this harbour, says
Mariti,
at present deserted and called to mind its ancient celebrity, I imagined I saw the bed of a dry river; and that the multitude of foreign names, inscribed and confounded on the neighbouring stones, were like those numerical signs, which, long after the annihilation of its waters, are an evidence of its former abundance.
The town of Salines, which stands on the borders of the sea, extends much further in length than in breadth. The citadel built by the Turks, in 1625, is furnished with a great many pieces of artillery taken from the Venetians. This fortress, full of fissures, and embrowned with age towards the sea, is falling fast into decay; whilst its ancient walls are almost hid by a multitude of plants; the offspring of time, the tender and delicate shades of which, form a charming contrast with the dark and gloomy colour of its ruins.
The adjoining city has been described, by most travellers, only as a pretty considerable town; but, if we observe, that it is the storehouse of commerce for the island, and that it holds the second rank in the kingdom, though dependent on the government of Nicosia; it will be allowed, we may be justified in styling Larnic a city. Besides, it is also the seat of a Greek bishop; and the place where the European consuls have fixed their residence.
However this may be, says
Mariti,
it is the most agreeable town in the whole island; for, I know nothing more interesting, he adds, than a commercial city. I experience a secret pleasure, in seeing a vast concourse of citizens and foreigners, labouring in concert for the happiness of mankind; and making, of any metropolis, a magazine for the whole world. In my eyes, the exchange is a vast assembly, where all nations have their representatives. Factors, in the commercial world, are what ambassadors are in the political: they negociate affairs; sign treaties; and keep up a useful correspondence, between rich societies of men, divided by seas, and living at the two extremities of the earth. I have often contemplated, with a pleasing emotion, an inhabitant of Japan, discussing his interest with a citizen of London; or a subject of the great Mogul, entering into contract with a Russian. I was fond of being among these numerous agents of commerce, distinguished by their dress, their manners, and their language; and all searching for the same point by different routes. Here I beheld a body of Armenians; there an assembly of Jews; and a little further a group of Dutchmen. I became in succession, a Dane, a Swede, a Frenchman; or, rather I was a citizen of the world.
All the buildings in this city, are modern; and it contains no monument of remote antiquity. The mosque was formerly a Latin church, and is the only Turkish place of worship in Larnic. The Greeks have here three churches, in which the people assemble three hours before day; for all their religious ceremonies must be finished before sun-rise.
Every Greek and Latin church is surrounded by walls. The entrance is through a gate about three feet and a half in height; which is made so low, in order to prevent the Turks from introducing horses, and other animals into the inclosure.
Public edifices are all constructed of stone. Every other building is formed of bricks, composed of a mixture of chopped straw, and moist earth, dried in the sun. The cement used, is nothing but the same clayey earth, with the addition of a little fresh straw. Such, in general, is the construction of all the houses in the kingdom, except in a few villages, where stones are very common.
The earthy colour of these bricks gives them, externally, a dismal and melancholy appearance; and travellers are agreeably surprized, to find the inside of the houses airy, and commodious: the walls are whitened with a composition of tale.
These houses have only one story above the ground-floor: the roofs are formed of earth, mixed with clay; and the crevices, produced by the heat in summer, close of themselves, during the rains in winter. They are about nine inches in thickness; and are supported by large beams, over which are laid very thin laths, covered with mats made of reeds; they are, however, not proof against a continuance of wet weather; and the inhabitants are under the necessity of giving them continual repair. Houses built after this manner, have, at least, one advantage; which is, that they resist earthquakes. Sad experience has taught the Cypriots, to prefer them to houses built of stone. They are paved with very soft white marble, which easily exfoliates. Every house has a garden; the cultivation of which, is the principal amusement of the Cypriots.
Among the private houses are some, which, on account of their grandeur, and the richness of their furniture may be considered as palaces. Such is that of the English consul: it contains a saloon capable of receiving five hundred people; and is ornamented with ancient tapestry, and excellent paintings. All the other apartments equally beautiful, look, for the most part, into a delightful garden, kept in excellent order.
The houses of the Greeks and Turks, are generally pretty large and spacious; but built in a whimsical stile, and laid out in an irregular manner.
Those who travel in the East, cannot help observing how inferior architecture is there, to what it was formerly. In this art the Orientals produced wonders. Without mentioning the tower of Babel, the foundations of which, according to an ancient writer, were still existing in his time, like a vast mountain, what could be more worthy of admiration than the walls of Babylon, its hanging gardens, and temple of
Belus,
the height of which, divided into eight stories, of a furlong each, was consequently a mile; and on the summit of which was erected the observatory of this proud city? To which might be added, that immense rock, cut into the figure of
Semiramis;
whilst some smaller ones represented tributary kings prostrated before her.
Many learned men have indeed ranked these wonders of art amongst the fables of antiquity; but their incredulity, in this respect, is founded upon nothing else than the impossibility of erecting such monuments at present. The ancients certainly enjoyed advantages we have not. The earth was exceedingly fertile, and the greater part converted into pastures, which require much fewer hands than agriculture. There was scarcely any commerce to employ the active part of mankind; few arts and sciences to engage the attention of the sedentary and contemplative; and besides this, monarchs were absolute; and, when they went to war, they put themselves at the head of all their people. We are told, that
Semiramis
carried with her three millions of men; and yet she found herself before an army still more numerous. Is it surprising then that this queen, on her return from war, as she could with a single word, command all that multitude, should have executed these wonders of her imagination? In these climates also, a succession of seasons was unknown; and winter never fettered the activity of the labourer. Amongst other advantages might be reckoned the bitumen; which, according to historians, covered the surface of the earth; and this species of cement, furnished by nature, is probably the same which the Scriptures tell us was employed in constructing the tower of Babel. Do not the pyramids of Egypt correspond with the descriptions given of them by the ancients? Nor have I the least doubt, says
Mariti,
but that an ingenious traveller might still discover some remains of that famous labyrinth which covered a whole province, and which, in its vast circumference, contained an hundred temples, dispersed through its different divisions. The Chinese wall is also one of those constructions which make a considerable figure in the scale of human industry: and were not this monument of oriental grandeur still extant; would it not be classed among the number of historical fables and chimeras? The doubts started respecting the existence of these prodigies of art, attest much less the wisdom of our criticism, than the narrow and confined sphere of our modern conceptions.
The water of Larnic was formerly very bad, and the destruction of the ancient aqueducts of criticism was greatly lamented. A bashaw, zealous for the good of the public, caused new ones to be constructed; and these kept in proper repair, continue to distribute throughout the city, the excellent waters of a spring from the neighbouring village of Arpera.
The city is governed by a Digdaban, or commissary. This is the second office of dignity in the island; and the power of appointing a person to fill it up, is vested in the governor-general.
The pretorian palace is the residence of the Cadi, and of the president of the Codgias. These Codgias are virtuous old men, whose counsels are listened to with attention, and followed with punctuality.
The sentences passed in this tribunal are only provisional; but in some cases of little consequence, no appeal can be made: in those of importance, the affair is referred to the tribunal of Nicosia, which determines in the last instance.
Three hours after sun-set, the guard of the culaches, otherwise called the watch, issues from the palace of the Digdaban: its business is to preserve peace among the inhabitants; and whoever walks abroad at that hour, without a light, is made a prisoner. Subjects of the empire are conducted to the public prisons; and Europeans to the palace of their consul: when they have committed no other crime, they are discharged, on paying a small acknowledgment to the guard.
In the city of Larnic, or rather in the whole kingdom of Cyprus, there are people belonging to six European nations; French, English, Tuscans, Neapolitans, Venetians, and Ragusans. Each have their respective consul, except the Tuscans; these are under the protection of the English consul, who is honoured even with the title of vice-consul of Tuscany. There are here also Imperialists, Danes, Swiss, Dutch, and Genoese. But as all these have long ceased to carry on commerce by themselves, they entrust their commissions to correspondents; whom they, among the other nations, have established in this island.
In the neighbourhood of this city, are a multitude of cisterns, covered with a viscous kind of cement, impenetrable to oil; which were formerly, as it is said, vast reservoirs for containing that liquid. This cement, is a mixture of marine salt, lime, and boiling oil.
The country round Larnic is not the most pleasant in the island, the soil being extremely barren. The sun falls almost perpendicular on these parched fields; and while the fatigued traveller breathes a scorching air, he searches in vain for some grove; the shade of which, may afford him shelter to recruit his exhausted strength. If the fields, however, are dry and barren, the orchards are rich and fruitful; they are remarkably pleasant, and watered by small canals formed in the earth. The gardens are equally beautiful, and abound with all kinds of flowers: the citron and the orange-trees thrive in them wonderfully.
Though this island does not seem to possess many considerable cities; according to
Mariti,
it abounds with beautiful villages, some of which, are almost as large as towns, and very populous. Among others, he describes in glowing terms, the village of Piscopia, near the ancient Cythera. This village, says he, is one of the most flourishing places in Cyprus. It abounds in citron, orange, and olive-trees; the trees are watered by a multitude of springs, and the scenery around is delightful. The pleasantness of the abode seems, as it were, to have been transfused into the souls of the inhabitants, who are sprightlier, and more amiable than in any other part of the kingdom. They have lively imaginations, which renders their conversation most agreeable; they paint, rather than speak; and their comparisons like that nature, which furnishes them with images, breathes an air of delicacy and grace.
Dale, another village to the South of Nicosia, is likewise described by
Mariti,
in animated terms. This village, says he, is delightfully situated on an eminence; and is rendered still more pleasant by the vicinity of a number of small groves. Its waters are remarkably limpid; and the banks are ornamented with a thousand odoriferous herbs; which enamel the plains, and diffuse an agreeable fragrance throughout the surrounding atmosphere. Sweet marjoram, is above all, very common. This plant, and the spot where it grows, are elegantly introduced by
Virgil,
in that charming picture he gives, of innocence reposing peacefully in the bosom of beauty, in a rural and solemn retreat. Dale, was formerly called Idalicum, and one of the four villages consecrated to the goddess
Venus,
as she herself says, in the tenth book of the Aeneid.
CHAP. XXXIV.
CYPRIOTS.
The people of this island, dress nearly in the same manner as the inhabitants of Constantinople. The ladies are distinguished by nothing but their light and lofty head-dress. This is a very ancient fashion, and has hitherto been preserved in the island. Their dress, according to the Cyprian taste, is much closer than that used by the Turks; and consists of a small vest, and a petticoat of red cotton cloth. Their robe is of cloth velvet, or silk: it is a long piece of stuff proceeding from the shoulders, which passes below the arms, and hangs down to the ground. It does not meet before, and leaves that part of the body entirely uncovered. Their shifts are of silk, and manufactured in the kingdom. They wear breeches, or a kind of drawers; and to half boots, of yellow leather, are fixed, towards the ancle, sandals, which serve them for shoes. They have no stays; a plain vest of cotton marks out their shape, and preserves the pliableness of the body. Over the whole, is thrown a very fine shift, or light veil, with which their modesty is not contented; and to which, they add one made of some kind of stuff, less delicate and transparent. Around their necks, they have gold chains; and their arms are ornamented with pearls and jewels. Their head-dress, is an assemblage of beautiful printed muslin handkerchiefs, arranged so, as to form something like a helmet; to the extremities of which, they affix another handkerchief folded into the shape of a triangle, and suffered to float over the shoulders. This kind of helmet, raises them a foot and a half, and gives them a theatrical and gigantic appearance. These pyramidical head-dresses, so fashionable in this island, offend against taste and good sense. The head of itself, is the master-piece of nature; and these foreign ornaments destroy its effect: it occupies the highest and most conspicuous part of the human figure. Nature has omitted nothing that could embellish the face; she has spread over it a fresh and delicate complexion; and rendered it still more striking, by the beautiful enamel of two rows of teeth. She has made it the seat of smiles and modesty. The brilliant sense of seeing animates, and enlivens the scene. On each side are suspended, the organs of hearing; and the least motion in the human body, becomes the agreeable source of enchanting expression. She has given it attitudes, graces, and motions; of which, words can convey but an imperfect idea. The hair hangs over it; and, like a floating shade, sets off its beauty to admiration. In short, she has imprinted in it, the seal of perfection; and the head serves, in some measure, as a cupola to the most elegant of her works. To overload it, therefore, with superfluous and preposterous ornaments, is to destroy its admirable proportion; and substitute, in the places of real beauties, childish and ridiculous toys. Among the Cyprian ladies, the greater part of the hair is concealed under these ornaments; they, however, divide it on the forehead, and extend it over each temple towards the ears. Behind, they suffer it to fall in ringlets; and those who have a great quantity, form it into eight or ten tresses. They are passionately fond of perfumes, especially on the head, which they cover with all kinds of flowers. The catholic ladies in the island, are remarkably coquettish, and take great pains to display the elegance of their dress; their eyes seem to invite adulation; and the opinion they form of those around them, is decided by their slowness, or readiness to gratify their desires.
The character of this people, and the ideas they seem to have formed of love, is different from that of European nations. That ecstacy and delirium, that union of souls, which leads us into a kind of intoxication, which deifies in our eyes, the object of our affections, and renders love a divine emotion, and an indissoluble chain, is never known here. All the different shades of sensibility escape them. They feel nothing of the moral influence of love; and are acquainted only with its unbridled fury: it is a want which they gratify, and not a sentiment which hurries them away. A European always embellishes the object whom he loves; and every day, and every moment, discovers in her new charms, and new graces; he multiplies them, as one may say, and experiences, even in constancy, all the pleasures of variety. Such is love, in temperate regions, where the two powers of which man is formed, are in harmony; and where the physical sensation is subordinate to the moral sentiment. But, in those countries, where the irresistible, and continual action of a scorching atmosphere, destroys the harmony of these two powers; the violence of the sensation, extinguishes the energy of the sentiment; and man yields to the most impetuous of passions, and not to the mildest of affections.
As an instance of debauchery of manners in this island,
Mariti
mentions, the adoration paid by the women to the Abdales. These are pious vagabonds, or a sect of Turkish monks, who wander from one town to another, without any fixed residence. No sooner has an Abdale arrived in any town, than all the women go to visit him; they flock round him, and even make frequent assignations with him, without the least scruple; and some even do not blush to submit to his desires in the middle of the streets, while a simple cloak conceals from view, those superstitious orgies; resembling in this respect, according to
Bruce,
the inhabitants of Abyssinia; who, like the Cypriots in their amours, seem lost to all sense of modesty.
We shall now give a description of a Cyprian hunting match; which, though chiefly remarkable for the extraordinary discipline of the dogs, may not be displeasing to many of our readers. We have already remarked, the Cypriots are remarkably fond of hunting. Gallantry, hunting, and the cultivation of their gardens, seem to constitute the whole of their amusements. A sportsman, however, in this island, seldom goes out alone, to pursue a feeble animal with his fusee, and a couple of dogs. The Cypriots love exercise; but they wish to enliven their excursions, with jollity and mirth: they, therefore, go in large parties, mounted on horses, and accompanied by whole packs of dogs. The hunting match, at which I was present, says
Mariti,
was a very brilliant one, it being that of the governor. On our arrival in a spacious plain, interspersed with clumps of mulberry-trees, some ruins, and thick bushes, the sportsmen began to form a ring in order to enclose the enemy. The barrier consisted of guards placed on horseback, with dogs in the intervals. The ladies of the greatest distinction in Nicosia, with a multitude of other people, stood on a little hill, which I also ascended; and from that eminence enjoyed the amusement, without sharing in the fatigue. The governor and his suite were posted in different parts of the plain; and, as soon as the appointed moment arrived, the hunt was opened with the sound of musical instruments. Part of the dogs were then loosened; which, ranging through the bushes and underwood, sprang a great number of rails, partridges, and woodcocks. The governor began the sport, by bringing down one of these birds; his suite followed his example; and the winged tribe, into whatever quarter they flew, were sure of meeting instant death. I was struck with the tranquillity of the stationary dogs; for, notwithstanding the instinct with which they were naturally spurred on, not one of them quitted his post; but the rest ran about in pursuit of the game, and the plain was cleared in an instant. The scene now changed; a hare started from a bush; the dogs pursued; and, while she made a thousand turnings to avoid her enemy, they met her at every point. She, however, often defeated the greyhounds; and I could not but admire the sagacity of these animals, which, disdaining the assistance of those which were young and inexperienced, waited until some of the cunning old ones opened the way for them, and then the whole plain was in motion. During this scene, the beauty of the season, the cheerfulness with which I was surrounded, the barking of the dogs re-echoed a thousand times from the hills, the cries of the hunters, and the sound of the horns, exalted my imagination; and kept me, I may say, in a kind of enchantment. When the poor animal was just going to be a prey to his enemies, the governor rushed forwards, and throwing a stick before the dogs, they all instantly stopped, and not one of them ventured to pass the signal. One of the swift greyhounds being then let loose, pursued the hare, and having come up with it, carried it back; and, jumping on the neck of the governor's horse, placed it before him. The governor took it in his arms; and gave orders if it concontinued alive, to shut it up in his park, where he maintained many other prisoners taken in the same way. Such was the humanity of this governor, a Turk, who thought it his duty to preserve an animal, which had afforded him so much amusement.
CHAP. XXXV.
Religion, Government, Population, and Language.
RELIGIONS are very much diversified in this island: the Turks never carried their tyranny so far, as to attempt to render theirs universal. Had this moderation been adopted by all sovereigns, it would have saved abundance of human blood, and not have so frequently placed a greater distance between the members of the same nation, than is to be found between people separated by immense seas, or inaccessible mountains. The greater part of the inhabitants are Greek schismatics. Besides a multitude of Armenians, there are here a great many Maronites; whose religious customs, differ little from those of the Roman catholics. The Latins are far from being so numerous, and consist only of Europeans, and the brotherhood of St.
Francis,
known throughout the Levant, under the name of the fathers of the Holy Land.
The Turks here have a mullah, who is also in some measure the chief of the law; the Greeks, an archbishop, and three bishops; the Arminians, a bishop; the Maronites, a high-priest; and the Latins, two rectors; one for the French, and the other for the Italians. Religious toleration in this island, is extended to all nations.
There are very few English in it; and doubtless it is, for this reason, that they have neither a church, a chapel, or a minister of their religion. Should they happen to multiply, they will endeavour to procure all these things. Here, as elsewhere, it is known that man is by excellence, a religious being; and that religion is the strongest bond which attaches a people to their sovereign, by exhibiting him as the representative of the Deity. We have spoken pretty fully of the Mahometan worship, under the article of religion in Turkey; we shall, however, offer some strictures from
Mariti,
on their mode of preaching in Cyprus.
Were we to judge of their discourses from ours, we should form a very false idea of them. The Mussulman's eloquence, admits nothing of the common place kind. Less diffuse, and less ornamented than the European oratory, every foreign idea, and every useless expression, are carefully banished from it. A Turkish sermon, is a continued series of maxims and sentences. The minister never attempts to prove dogma's, which no one doubts; nor does he ever address himself to the audience as to unbelievers. Morality is the basis of their discourses, which contain regulations for conduct, in every circumstance of life, and consolation for every kind of misfortune to which men may be exposed. The person of the orator, is as simple as his discourse; and the profligacy of his conduct, never destroys the beauty of his morality. A young voluptuary, is never seen declaiming against effeminacy and pleasure; an opulent dignitary, preaching the contempt of riches; or an elegant beau, satyrising vice and luxury. These ridiculous contrasts, so common, and yet so little taken notice of in Europe, would highly offend these people who are fond of simplicity: they would believe, one ridiculed both them and their religion; and the latter is an object upon which a good Mussulman will never suffer raillery.
The kingdom of Cyprus, was for a long time governed by a bachan; but when the island began to lose its ancient splendor, its expences became excessive, and the people were so oppressed by taxes, that they complained of this burthen, and begged the Ottoman Porte to give them, instead of a bashaw, a
muhassil,
or simple governor. This request was complied with; but the Cypriots, by changing masters, were not freed from oppression; and, being equally harrassed under the muhassil, they again complained, and petitioned for a bashaw. All their supplications were, however, useless; and they still continue to groan under a yoke they once thought less severe, and less burthen-some.
The revenues of the kingdom, are abandoned to the Grand Vizier, who farms them to the highest bidder. The purchaser, furnished with a special mandate from the Grand Signior, countersigned by the minister, arrives in his government; and, like the clouds that precede tempests, and conceal all those scourges that desolate our plains; the presence of this subaltern despot, impresses universal terror, and presages every evil.
If interest be here, as it really is, the sure path to preferment; it is also the only rule, which regulates the actions of the great. There is nothing to check these avaricious governors. They fall on the people with fury; and their subtle tyranny invents a thousand means to get possession of their wealth, and extort from them the fruits of their industry. Every day gives birth to some new tax; and the governor, after having fattened on the substance of the people —after having enriched the agents of his cruelty, and become the object of public execration; retires loaded with gold, and maledictions, and gives place to a new purchaser; who, to make himself amends for a bad bargain, thinks, that he is entitled to exercise equal rapacity, and oppression. The consequence is, that this beautiful kingdom is reduced to the most deplorable condition, and drained of all its specie. In no country whatever, are taxes more accumulated. Altogether, they amount to about two hundred piastres, for each citizen. Capitation, throughout the whole Turkish empire, is forty piastres; and it was only by a special favour, that it was here reduced to twenty-one.
Gold here, is the universal agent; and every thing is purchased by it, says
Mariti,
even to the blood of the citizens. The law, it is true, orders an assassin to be put to death; but the criminal, by paying a few hundred piastres, easily avoids its vengeance. The fine for murdering a man, between thirty and thirty-five years of age, is five hundred piastres.
The tribunals to which all civil and criminal cases are referred, are called Mehemes. The president of these tribunals is, in the capital, a mullah; and, in towns, or large villages, a cadi.
The military government of the island, is in the hands of the ali-bey, a general of the cavalry; and the aga-janissary, commandant of the infantry. Their respective captains are called, zaim, and cioluagini. There ought to be three thousand horses in the island, and about eight thousand janissaries; but there are scarce ever more than an hundred of the former, and two thousand of the latter. The pay, however, is always the same, and is received by the commanders.
When the Turks conquered Cyprus, they reckoned in it besides women, children, and old people, seventy thousand men, subject to capitation. Such was always the number of its inhabitants, in the short moments of its splendor and glory. But, despotism having over-run this rich island, its sources of abundance are dried up, and its population is so much decreased, that the number of inhabitants scarce amount to forty thousand. This calculation is, perhaps, not very accurate; it being difficult to ascertain the exact number of inhabitants, either in Cyprus, or in any countries of the Levant. The Orientals do not, like the Europeans, keep a register of births and deaths; no notion, therefore, can be formed of this population, but, from the number of those paying taxes, and who are not above a third part of the whole.
CHAP. XXXVI.
Commerce of Cyprus, and its Wines.
THE three principal articles of commerce, in the island of Cyprus, are cotton, silk, and wine. The cotton, on account of its whiteness, softness, and the length of its filaments, is accounted the best in the whole Levant. The high price at which it sells, is a sufficient proof of its superiority over every other kind used in Europe, and of the intrinsic value of this staple commodity of the island.
The season of sowing this plant, is the month of April. The ground destined for the reception of the seed, is prepared much in the same manner as that for corn. As soon as the plants appear above ground, the weakest are pulled up, and none left but those which are strong and vigorous. The crops are collected in the months of October and November; and, as some time is necessary before the seed can be freed from its cover, or husk, the first exportation does not take place till February or March, in the year following.
It is accounted a good crop, when the whole produce of the kingdom amounts to five thousand bags. About half a century ago, the island produced eight thousand; and, under the government of the Venetians, thirty thousand.
Silk, is another important branch of the commerce, of the island of Cyprus. The method of breeding silk-worms here, is almost the same as that employed in Italy; but, it is not subject in Cyprus, to those inconveniences which arise from a variation of the atmosphere; the season at that epoch, being always beautiful and favourable. The quality of the silk, depends on the places where it is collected. The finest and whitest, is that produced in the environs of Famagusta and Carpassia. The orange, and sulphur-coloured, is made in Cythera, or the villages beyond the northern mountains; and that of a gold-yellow colour is produced in the territories of Paphos, and the adjacent country. The Turks purchase the greater part of the orange-coloured silk, for which they pay a piastre more, and send it to Cairo. The people there, are remarkably fond of this colour; and the silk, besides, is capable of being spun into much finer and more delicate threads. This island produces, one year with another, twenty-five thousand bags of silk.
The whole quantity of the best wines, made annually in Cyprus, amounts to forty thousand jars, or ten thousand barrels, Italian measure. Each jar contains five bottles, Florence measure.
The principal part of the wine trade, is carried on with the Venetians; for the wines of Cyprus, are drank at Venice, even in the Coffee-houses. These people, however, are not the nicest in their choice; since the wine which they purchase, is never above eighteen months old; the price, consequently, is very low, being never more than a piastre a jar. A piastre, according to
Mariti,
does not amount to quite three shillings, English. Other writers, make it equivalent to four shillings. The wines exported to other countries, are from five to six years old.
Almost all the wines on the island, are sent to Larnic; which, in all the ports of the Levant, is known to be the grand magazine for this commodity. They are transported in leather bags; and as they serve to hold indifferent as well as good wines, they are pitched with very little attention.
Hence arises that pitchy smell, observed in the new wines of Cyprus; which might be much less, were care employed in pitching the skins: as a proof of this, it may be remarked, that in the country where the vessels are better prepared; the wines have not the same strong smell, as those transported to the city.
After it has been kept some time, it begins to lose its pitchy smell; and when it has attained to the age of twelve or fifteen years, it loses it entirely.
Subterranean cellars are not known at Larnic. The cellars there, are all above ground, and very long and narrow. The casks are placed upon joists, or on small walls, raised about a hand's breadth from the ground. These cellars are called
kilaw;
and it is not thought of any importance, in respect to the quality of the wine, to build them towards any one point of the horizon more than to another. They have very little light; and the openings that admit it, are constructed in the extremity, opposite to the passage; on each side of which the casks are ranged. They are never opened, but when it is necessary to perform some operation on the wine. New wine, when taken from the skins, is put into earthern vessels, and not removed into casks, till after the expiration of a year.
It is for the most part customary, not to fill each cask entirely; a certain vacuum is left in them; and if they were only half full, the wine would sustain no injury.
Cyprus wine does not leave, on the sides of the vessel in which it is contained, that calcareous brilliant crust, which we call tartar. It, however, deposits at the bottom a certain sediment, which partakes of a black, red, and yellow colour; and which, in drying, acquires the consistence of a soft paste, and assumes the colour of Spanish snuff.
The price of the best wines, is generally from two to three piastres; that of new wines, or those made within the course of a year, is, as we have before observed, only one piastre. They have also an ordinary wine, which is never more than a quarter of a piastre, per jar; and in many villages, not above half that sum.
Strabo,
the geographer, describing the island of Cyprus; in the end of his relation, passes a high encomium on its wines.
Pliny,
the naturalist, reckons them among the most valuable wines of the earth.
The vineyards of Cyprus, says
Gregory le Grand,
are the most fertile of all those that I know; and their wines, which are in great request in all commercial countries, are a sure source of riches.
Aponius
admires the size of the grapes; the abundant and delicate juice of which, perfumes the mouth.
One is surprized to read, in a relation printed at Bologna, in 1572; that
Selim
II. emperor of the Turks, without respecting the
talim,
went to conquer Cyprus, in order that he might be master of its wines.
This prince, had wasted his youth, in the effeminacy and debauchery of the seraglio; and the laurels of his predecessors, appeared to him objects of contempt, rather than envy; as being too dearly purchased by the fatigues and dangers of arms. A question, however, put to him, by one of his women, changed in an instant his pacific disposition. Some excellent Cyprus wine, with which the favourite was not acquainted, being served up to them, during a voluptuous repast; she found it so delicious, that she asked
Selim
from what place he had procured it, and whether the fortunate soil that produced it, was contained within the vast extent of his empire. The sultan finding himself humbled by this question, suddenly quitted his new favourite; and having convoked his council, appointed
Piali,
admiral of his gallies; and
Mustapha
generalissimo of his forces; and gave orders for all his troops to be assembled, and hold themselves in readiness to receive his commands. "I propose," said he, "to conquer Cyprus; an island which contains a treasure, that none but the king of kings ought to possess.
This expedition is described, in a very interesting manner, by father
Angelo,
of the order of St. Dominic, and vicar-general of the Holy Land. He resided at Cyprus, at the time when Nicosia was taken.
We are almost tempted to smile, when we find
historians telling us, that
Selim
undertook this enterprize, from motives of glory.
Another monk, called
Stephen Lusignan,
who was also a witness to the defeat of the Cypriots, in some measure confirms this fact, which we have related. He says, that the Ottomans having in their researches, discovered some wine eighty years old, sent it with great care to the seraglio, as the most valuable part of the booty. These wines were reserved for the sick; and to give an idea of their quality, father
Stephen,
tells us, that they kindled in the fire like oil.
There is no longer any of these wines in Cyprus. The oldest that can be found, are those preserved under ground in earthen vessels; their age, in general, does not exceed twenty, or twenty-five years; and there would be none even so old, were it not for the custom which the Christians have, at burying one of these vessels, at the birth of each child, to be served up afterwards at their marriage. This wine, whatever may be the fate of the child, is never employed in commerce.
I do not know, says
Mariti,
what may have been the properties of those wines, eighty years old; which were formerly very common in the island; but I can assert, that those kept at present for twenty years, cure several diseases; and even some that are inveterate, as I myself have experienced.
Having been attacked for two months with a tertian ague, which degenerated into a quartan, I was beginning to despair of my condition, when a Cypriot, whom I accidently saw, made me acquainted with the remedy usually employed in such cases; which is only a glass of old wine, drank when the fit encreases. Having followed this prescription, I soon fell asleep; and when I awakened, I found myself perfectly well, and was never troubled more with the disorder. Such cures belong to the marvelous, no doubt; but they are, nevertheless, true; and appear very simple to the Cypriots.
Cyprus wine is also employed, with equal success, for cleansing wounds. If a rag is dipped in a glass full of this wine, and applied to the injured part, it becomes a salutary balm; which does not fail soon to heal the wound, and cause it to close entirely.
These wines are not equally good at every season of the year. If the spring and summer are favourable to them, the winter is prejudicial to them in cold countries; they appear then, to have lost all delicacy and flavour. On this account, connoisseurs take the precaution to place them near the fire before they are drank.
In warm weather it is of utility, towards their preservation, to put them into cool cellars. As every place suits them equally; they will keep as well on a wooden, as on an earthen floor.
By pouring Cyprus wine from the bottle, it may be easily known whether it be old. When certain oily particles are found adherent to the glass, it is a sign of age: wine clarified by art, is too much enervated to produce that effect. It is not so easy to determine whether it be genuine, because it may be adulterated a thousand different ways; the most usual is, to mix it with muscadines and perfumes. To prevent any fraud in this respect, nothing is better, than to learn from what part it comes, and never to purchase but from merchants of known probity.
CHAP. XXXVII.
Of the modern Greeks, their Character, Manners, Customs, Dress, &c.
A Greek gentleman is, without doubt, the most haughty and conceited being in the universe. Those men, who by their birth or fortune, hold the first rank among the Greeks, are called kings; as the women, who excel in beauty, are denominated queens. The kings of ancient Greece were so numerous, inconsiderable, and vain, that during the reign of the emperors, the nobility might well stile themselves kings; which title they accordingly assumed, and it remains with them to this day. Anciently the same appellation was given to the powerful and the rich.
Horace
calls them the sovereigns of the earth.
Terence,
in conformity to the Greek language, gives to all the ladies of a certain rank, the title of queens. "Notwithstanding your rank and your income, you may pretend what you will, says
Martial
to
Maximus,
we are equal. I sup with you, you supped with some one else last night. I am coming to pay my court to you this morning, you have already done so before me. I accompany you as my patron and king, and you likewise attend in the
suite
of another. But it is enough to be a client, without being the proud servant of any one. He who can be king in his own house, does not stand in need of another."
The Greeks, ever vain and ambitious, give more commonly the title of
archondas,
and
archondisa;
that is, of prince and princess, to those distinguished by their rank or opulence. This word comes from the Greek word
archose,
which signifies a prince. The archers at Athens, succeeded the sovereigns; the second bore the name of king; and that of archon, has been since given to the first lords of the emperor's court. From hence the title of archondas is taken up by such, among the modern Greeks, as pretend to a superiority over the rest of the people.
There are no chimnies in the Greek houses. A brazier is made use of to heat the apartments, and for those persons, to warm themselves by, who are cold. This custom is very ancient all over the East; the Romans had no other, and the Turks have preserved it. The brazier was placed in the middle of the apartment, and dry wood burned in it, with torches to give light: it was placed, as at present, upon a tripod; lamps did not come in use till long after.
To protect the face from the inconvenience and heat of the brazier, the
tendour
was invented: this is a square table, under which the fire is placed, and is covered with a carpet, which reaches to the ground; over this is thrown a silk covering, more or less valuable, round which the company sit, either on a sopha, or on the carpet. This utensil is chiefly in use among the ladies, who in winter sit near it the whole day, occupied in embroiderings, and receiving the visits of their friends.
Embroidery is the chief occupation of the Greek women, they go out but little, and those that are obliged to labour for the support of their families, like our spinners, work from morning to night, together with their children and their slaves. The picture of the industrious woman in
Virgil
's eighth book of his Aeneid, is an exact copy after nature.
I have been, says
Guys,
an eye-witness of this living picture. The lamp of a female embroiderer, my neighbour, was lighted before day-break; and all her young maidens were seated early at their work, and enlivened their labour with songs.
We are indebted to the Greeks, for the art of embroidery, which is of very ancient date, and was carried by them to the utmost degree of perfection. The Cretans, particularly, excelled in this art. When the talents of a young slave were mentioned by the ancients, to be skilful in embroidery was all that was requisite; they worked then as they do at present, in the apartments with their mistresses.
Agamemnon,
disputing the fair
Chriseis,
with
Achilles,
says, I should prefer her even to
Clitemnestres,
the queen; nor is she inferior to her, either in beauty, in wit, or in her skilfulness at all kinds of embroideries.
The ladies of the highest rank prepared the wool for embroidering themselves, and had no other occupation.
The Trojan women, when their town was besieged, seized with a rage for fighting, wished to lay aside their spindles, and embroidery, in order to take up arms. The prudent
Theano
stops them, and says, "Return home, I entreat you, and resume your embroidery, and other such like occupations; and confide to men, the task of driving away the Greeks, and protecting you."
Homer
is frequent, in his eulogium on the Grecian embroideries.
Antinous
says, he presented to
Penelope
a mantle; the embroidery of which was very elegant; and the colours variegated with great art and skill.
What the same poet says, of the veils embroidered by
Helen
and
Andromache,
has given rise to a discussion, whether these embroideries were embossed. Although this art has made great progress, by seeing what was done now; some conjecture may be made of what was done in ancient times. I do not think, with the author, of the
origin of laws,
that they had recourse to painted patterns. The design was drawn as it is at present, upon the silk, or linen; and the embroiderer shaded it with her wool, of different colours: nature being the great model. The embroidery at first, imitated the most simple flowers, of one or two colours; and, by degrees, those that were more variegated. Figures, and a mixture of shades, were introduced in proportion, as the art of dying colours, and working them, were brought to perfection. It is certain, that all the women in Greece embroidered; and that the men deemed it an honour to wear the garments that had been worked by them.
Quintus Curtius,
in his history of
Alexander the Great,
acquaints us, that this prince having received a quantity of stuffs, and rich garments, after the fashions of his country, sent them to
Sysigambis,
with the slaves who had worked them; desiring she might be acquainted, that, if she approved of the presents, her daughters might be taught how they were to be worked, in order to fill up their time, and make presents of them when finished. At these words, the tears which fell from her cheeks, shewed the little value she set on them; and how injurious she thought the compliment that was paid her; there being nothing which the women in Persia, think a greater disgrace, than to employ themselves in works of this kind.
Alexander
finding she was mortified, went to see her, and told her, that the robe which he wore, was not only presented to him by his sister, but even worked by her; from thence, says he, you may judge, that the custom of my country has misled me.
The custom is still kept up in all the Greek families of any rank, of considering the person, who nursed either the master or mistress, as part of the family. Among the ancient Greeks, a woman, who had brought up the daughter of any person of rank, always continued with her, even after marriage; and was considered as her governess, her confidant, and counsellor. It is for this reason, that, in the ancient Greek tragedies, a princess scarce ever appears upon the scene, without being accompanied by her nurse. This custom is so well kept up, that the modern name of nurse,
paranama,
is even more expressive than the ancient, and signifies
second mother.
She is always kept in the house, after having nursed one of the children; and is, in some measure, from that time, incorporated as one of the family.
The Greek ladies still refuse to suckle their children, in order to preserve their beauty, their breasts, and even their health, which they consider as likely to be affected by it. They have ever been told, that their ideas, in this respect, were erroneous; and, that they made themselves no better than step-mothers, by thus abandoning their children, to the care and nourishment of strangers. The force of example and custom, has prevailed over all these reasons. There is nothing that has been written in the present age, on this interesting subject, more forcible, than the discourse of a Greek philosopher; preserved to us, by
Aulus Gellius,
and which is well worth being related. This philosopher went to pay a visit, to the wife of one of his people; a person of high rank, who had just been brought to bed. When the first compliments were over, he enquired of the mother of the lady, if her daughter proposed to suckle her infant. God forbid, replied the mother! would you have my daughter, after the pain she has undergone, take upon her, so irksome and disagreeable an office? Ah! madam! replied the philosopher, let her not be a half-mother; and, after having borne for nine months in her womb, and nourished with her blood an unformed being, whom she never saw nor knew, refuse the milk which nature has given her, to a human being, who is come forth into the world, whom she sees, who exists before her eyes, and implores her assistance by the most affecting cries.
A GREEK LADY
The servants do not remain at home, when their mistress goes out; they are obliged to follow her; and this custom is still in practice among the Greeks.
Zaleucus,
disciple of
Pythagoras,
and legislator of Locres, in Italy, his native country, to repress the luxury and vanity of the nobles, enacted a law, that no woman of quality should be attended by more than one servant, except she was drunk.
The numerous attendants, which accompany a Grecian lady, is, in Greece, what a fine equipage is in England; with this difference, that no woman of any character, can go out alone; she must, at least, have one servant with her. Those of high rank, whose vanity induces them to make an ostentatious display of their grandeur, have many slaves to follow them.
I have already said, that the daughters were scarce ever permitted to go out, not even to church, till they were married. This last custom, is not so scrupulously adhered to in the present age; they dare not, however, appear even now in the company of men, except in the presence of their parents.
Nausicac
says to
Ulysses, 'which of us, without the permission of her parents, would appear in public with a man, before she was married?'
Such were the wisdom and simplicity of manners in ancient times. How very different are those of the present age!
The wise
Phocydides
said, "keep your daughters closely shut up, and do not permit them to appear, even at the threshold of your doors, till they are married."
The young Greeks amuse themselves with different games; they pass their time in embroidering, or, in looking at passengers through the blinds of their windows; which are so contrived, as to enable them to see without being perceived.
They have also in Greece, another ancient custom, which is to present their hands to their daughters, their slaves, and others, who are their inferiors, to kiss.
Euripides
makes
Alcestes,
in the tragedy, call all her women about her, by name, one after the other, and hold out her hand to them that they may kiss it.
After the kissing of hands, the greatest mark of respect in the East, when, accosting a person of superior rank, is, to kiss or touch the hem of his garment, and then to approach the hand to their lips. This is the manner in which the Turks salute their patrons; and, for a Turk to permit an inferior to kiss the skirt of his garment, is considered, as taking him under their protection. On this subject, I was witness, says
Guy,
to an act of great generosity and humanity, on the part of a Turk.
The late Marquis
de Villeneuve,
after having concluded a treaty of peace, between the emperor and the grand signior, went to the audience of the sultan at the arsenal. Two French slaves, perceiving the ambassador, made their escape, and went and threw themselves at the feet of the ambassador, begging him to redeem them. Their master came up, and
M. de Villeneuve,
having asked him, how much he required for their ransom;
they are free,
replied the Turk,
and were no longer mine, from the instant they had the good fortune to kiss the robe of the French ambassador. M. de Villeneuve,
struck with the subimlity of this sentiment, which charmed all the spectators, pulled out a very fine watch, which he had in his pocket, and presented it to the generous Mussulman.
The young girls, in Greece, have among them, a game, which consists in kissing each other on the eyes, whilst they take hold of the ears. This tender and affectionate mode of kissing, is very ancient.
Tibulius,
in his elegies, notices it.
Natusque parenti oscula compressis auribus eripiet:
lib. 2. eleg. 5. 'And the child snatches from his parent, kisses, seizing him by the ears.'
I do not like
Alcippus,
says a shepherd in
Theocritus;
because, when I gave him a very handsome pigeon, he did not take hold of me by the ears and kiss me.
CHAP. XXXVIII.
Dress.
LUCIAN
represents the Greek ladies at their toilets, surrounded with many attendants; some of them held the glass; others, a ewer full of water. Then came the drugs, which serve to darken the eye-brows, to paint the cheeks and the lips; then the chains, necklaces, bracelets, ear-rings. In short, they were covered with gold and jewels, from head to feet. In the present age, there would be rather something to add, than to diminish from this description: all these ornaments still subsist, and particularly the gold chains, which make a very necessary appendage to the dress of the Greek ladies. In going back to the times of
Homer,
we find the same embellishments for the toilette. The deity, who afterwards fabricated the buckler for
Achilles,
had not before disdained amusing himself, in making ornaments of this sort.
When my mother, says
Vulcan,
ashamed of having brought me into the world so deformed, had thrown me into the sea, that I might have been for ever concealed in its abyss, I should have suffered a great deal, if the beautiful
Thetis,
and
Eurynome,
the daughters of
Ocean,
had not picked me up. I remained nine years in a deep cave; occupied in making for them, bracelets, agraffs, necklaces, buckles, rings, and aigrettes for the hair.
Hom.
Iliad. b. 17.
The ladies formerly, as at present, wore their hair tied, and much longer than the men.
Leucippus,
says
Pausanias,
let his hair grow, to make a sacrifice of it to the river Alpheus. After having tied it in the same manner as the girls, he put on female attire, and went to see
Daphne,
who was deceived by the disguise.
The head-dress of the Greek ladies, especially when it is low, is generally set off by a heron's feather; and they then place in front, another small black feather, or a coloured one; frizzing the hair round with a low curl.
May not these feathers bear some relation to the ancient custom, spoken of by
Winkleman,
in his beautiful collection of antique monuments? The Muses, had a dispute about singing, in the island of Crete, with the Syrens, who challenged them to a trial of skill, and were conquered. The Muses, as a punishment for their temerity, cut their wings, and affixed to their head-dress, one of their feathers as a trophy. The Greek women, therefore, may have received this ornament from the Muses. They are fond, at least, of representing them; when they dispute with each other, as they do at present, who shall carry off the prize in singing; or, when they sing couplets alternatively; a sort of entertaining combat; the object of which is, who shall recite last, and gain the victory over the others.
Besides, they have different sorts of head-dresses, more or less ornamented, which they vary many ways. Sometimes their hair falls in tresses down their shoulders; it is often curled up all round the head, or negligently tied up with flowers.
The mitre, which the women wore formerly, had little fillets; which, coming down by the cheeks, tied under the chin.
The Greeks have the same kind of ornament at present, embroidered in gold, with fringes. They call it the
Mahoulika;
and it generally announces some indisposition.
The Greek ladies, have ever been fond of covering themselves with jewels. The buckles of their girdles, their necklaces, their bracelets, are enriched with them; and, although they are fond of adorning their hair with the finest flowers of the spring, diamonds are intermingled with the jessamin and roses. They often dress themselves up, when they have no intention of going out, or of being seen, merely to contemplate themselves. These ornaments are never laid by, but for some deep and indispensable mourning; or, for some poignant cause of grief.
Thus, the celebrated
Sapho,
writes to
Phaon:
'I have not dressed myself out since your absence, nor even taken the pains to comb out my hair. I wear no rings on my fingers, no gold in my hair; I do not perfume myself with the essence of Arabia; my dress is neglected, and without ornament; for, whom should I wish to please?'
What
Sapho
did for her lover, the Greek women, with much more propriety, do for their husbands; and, in their absence, most of them take no pains in ornamenting their persons.
In speaking of the ornaments and jewels, of the Greek ladies; we will bring to our reader's recollection, an anecdote preserved to us by
Plutarch.
An Ionian lady, a friend of
Phocion
's second wife, and who was on a visit to her, took great pains in displaying her jewels to her; which consisted in bracelets and necklaces, ornamented with gold and precious stones. She replied to her,
my only ornament is Phocion;
who, for these twenty years, has been general of the Athenians.
Among the modern Greek ladies, might be found similar
traits
of sentiment, if there were but any
Phocions.
To form some idea of the excess, to which luxury has carried the Greek women, we must hear what St.
Chrysostom
says on the subject, respecting the women of his time. "Besides, says he, their ear-rings, they have other jewels, to ornament the extremity of their cheeks. Their eye-lashes, and their whole face, are covered with paint. Their petticoats are netted with gold threads; their necklaces are gold; they likewise wear thin plates of gold on the wrists. Their shoes are black, very shining, and terminated in a point: (the form of the shoe is still the same, but the colour is changed). They ride on cars, drawn by white mules, with a numerous train of slaves and attendants."
The Greek women, of the present day, when they would go to any distance, not chusing to make a display of their diamonds in the streets, have them carried with them, to put on before they enter the house, where they are going, and take them off before they return, when their visit is over. This is a very ancient custom.
Another proof of adherence to ancient customs, in the Greek ladies, is the fan, and the manner of which they make use of it. This fan is very large, circular, composed of peacocks feathers, and has an ivory stick; in the centre, is a small glass. The ladies carry it into the country; and when fatigued with the heat, they repose themselves on a sofa; a slave takes the fan from his mistress, and ventilates the air with it to refresh her.
Athenaeus
describes this fan, and scites some verses from
Anacreon,
where this poet giving the portrait of one
Artemon,
a voluptuous and effeminate man, says, he carries with him a round fan, with an ivory stick, which serves him for a parasol like the women.
In Achaia, on a marble tomb, of which
Pausanias
gives a description, is seen, says this writer, a young person of great beauty, seated in an ivory chair; and near her, one of her attendants, who holds a large fan, or parasol over her head.
The use of the veil, is of very ancient date; since, it has been discovered in times of remote antiquity. The veil, that symbol of modesty, which not only conceals from the prying eye, certain defects; but tends, likewise, to make beauty more attracting; which seems to announce modesty, and cover the innocent blush of timid youth; this
degagée
ornament, has ever been a favourite with beauty and the graces. No reproach can be cast on the Greek ladies, for not having faithfully preserved it. It makes, as formerly, an essential part in their dress, and distinguishes the different ranks. That of the mistress, and the servant; of the free woman, and the slave, are very different. There is an art in adjusting it, to veil themselves decently and agreeably.
A young beauty, who veils her face, says a Greek poet, is but the more ardently sought after; and excites in her lovers, great eagerness in concealing herself from their looks. This useful lesson, is as ancient as the world, co-eval with beauty and the veil. The Romans, who were no less severe in their injunctions, imposed on the women not to appear in public, without being veiled.
This veil, covered, as at present, the head and a part of the body; it was, consequently, very long: and, it was, no doubt, from its length, that it obtained the appellation of
Macrama.
Yet the Greek veil does not cover the face in the same manner, as that of the Turkish women; for this reason, the modern Greeks make use of this latter, to conceal themselves with more care; especially when they go to any distance, or in parts inhabited by the Turks.
In the East, the veil seems to have been as ancient as the world.
Abimelec,
king of Gerar, restoring
Abraham
his wife, tells him, that he shall add some flocks and slaves, of both sexes, to attend her. "For you, Sarah, continues the king, there are a thousand pieces of silver, which I commit to the care of this man, whom you call brother. It is proper to furnish him with a sum sufficient to purchase a veil, suitable to the condition of one so respectable as yourself; that your servants may always remember, that you are the spouse of your master; and to let all strangers know, that you are a married woman. Never forget, that by neglecting that mark of distinction, common to persons of your rank, in this country, you have exposed yourself too much."
The value which king Gerar put upon this veil, calls to mind what
Plato
says, that there were in Persia, large provinces; one of which, was called the girdle; and the other, the queen's veil; because, in fact, their revenues were appropriated to the expence of the veils and girdles of the queen.
The origin of the veil is referred, by the Greeks, to modesty and bashfulness; properties which partake equally of timidity. A very pleasant story is told on this subject, recorded to us by
Pausanias.
"About thirty furlongs from the city of Sparta,
Icarius
placed a statue of modesty, to perpetuate the following incident."
Icarius,
having married his daughter to
Ulysses,
entreated him to fix his residence at Sparta, to which
Ulysses
would not consent. Disappointed in his wishes, he made a similar application to his daughter, and entreated her not to abandon him; and seeing her ready to depart with
Ulysses,
for Ithaca, he redoubled his efforts to detain her; nor could he be prevented from following them.
Ulysses,
wearied with his importunities, told his wife, that she was at free liberty, either to return with her father to Sparta, or to go along with him to Ithaca. On hearing this, the beautiful
Penelope,
it is said, blushed; and, without making any reply, threw a veil over her face.
Icarius
understood her meaning, and let her go with her husband. But, moved at his daughter's embarrassment, he consecrated a statue to modesty, on the spot where
Penelope
had thrown a veil over her face; that henceforward it might be a universal symbol of delicacy with the fair sex.
The veil worn by the Greek ladies, is generally of muslin, bordered with gold. That of the common people, of a coarser sort of plain muslin. It is always white; such as the monuments of old, represent the veils of
Hermione
and
Helen.
The modern Greeks (the men) wear a sort of scarf about the neck; which, occasionally, goes over the head, and serves to screen it from the wind and rain. The women also wear one of a similar kind, but of a finer stuff than that of the men. They use them against the inclemency of the weather.
The girdle, in ancient times, as well as the present, was considered, by the eastern people, as an essential part of dress.
David
speaking of the punishment due to an impious man, and a calumniator of his neighbour, adds:
"He cloathed himself with cursing, as with a raiment. Let it be as the cloke that he hath upon him, and as the girdle, he is always girded withal."
The Greeks wear a girdle, like the inhabitants of the East. That of the women, which is richer, and more luxuriantly ornamented, is considered as a very important part of dress. The girdle was, with the ancients, a token of the bride's virginity; and, after the celebration of the matrimonial rites, hung up in the temple of
Diana,
from whence it was taken down, and carried away by the bridegroom, as soon as he became legally entitled to it; that is, when the perfect consummation of the marriage was effected.
The embroidered girdle of the Greek ladies, is frequently fastened by a buckle, with diamonds, or emeralds, resembling that of
Venus,
which
Homer
describes so brilliant, and which was also quilted and embroidered.
Nothing is more ancient among the Greeks, than consecrating the girdle at their marriage.
The Greeks, and Turks likewise, to this day, wear a girdle, in order to fasten their purse; into which, they put the money they receive, or chuse to carry about them. This custom is so ancient, that speaking of a man who has lost his all, they say, he has lost his girdle.
CHAP. XXXIX.
Diversions, Entertainments, and Festivals.
THE Greeks have ever been a people devoted to festivals. The greatest solemnities of religion are but so many occasions of public rejoicing; and they celebrate them accordingly, with all the splendor of temporal festivity. On these occasions, their piety is not so conspicuous, as their attachment to sublunary joys. In the time of St.
Chrysostom,
the ancient Greeks had, for occasions of magnificence, tables surrounded with a border of massy silver, and in the shape of a C. Such, at present, is the form of their tables in Greece; but they are no longer ornamented with silver; and cushions placed round for seats. Conversation has no longer any charms for them. Their sole delight is to eat, and that to excess. The ancient Greek term for a repast, signified an assembly of persons eating and drinking together; an idea very different from what the Romans conceived of those entertainments; such a meeting by them was called
convivium;
or, a circle of persons uniting at table to entertain each other agreeably.
Cicero
has not neglected to make this distinction, in speaking of convivial meetings. "The supreme enjoyment of life, says the Roman orator, is, according to my idea, to pass our convivial hours with worthy men, of a facetious disposition, by whom we are esteemed. I would not be understood, he adds, to mean the sensual pleasure of the table; but that harmony of mind, and freedom of sentiment, which arises from an assembly of familiar friends. These only can form the pleasures of a repast. Accordingly, we Romans, in giving to our feasts a name, which signifies the act of living together, have certainly described it much better than the Greeks; who, in their denomination, though of one word, express simply the act of eating and drinking, without any allusion whatever to society.
The Greeks still drink to excess in their entertainments; their festivals seldom finishing, until the guests are unable to proceed. The Romans, when they used any excess of this kind, called it
pergraecari, i. e.
to drink after the manner of the Greeks.
In ancient Greece, the lovers of wine, like those of the present age, challenged each other to trials of drinking. When
Alexander
conducted his army into Persia, his officers abandoned themselves to the greatest excess, in company with the natives, who were renowned for their abilities, in supporting the most unbounded libations to the god of wine.
They always drink their wine unmixed, says
Spon;
and when in company, the toast and the glass circulate together.
The custom of singing at table, is very ancient with the Greeks. Each in his turn, drinks to the health of his mistress, and generally repeats it, in conformity to the number of letters contained in her name.
Theocritus,
in the fourteenth book of his Idyll, gives the description of a rural feast, which is the exact representation of a modern repast.
Those entertainments given in the country, are called relaxations of the mind; to which are joined, the amusements of playing and dancing: a table being provided, accorded to the number of the guests, in shape like the Greek letter Π. The most distinguished persons, place themselves at the bottom, and are immediately joined by the master of the feast, who instantly fills a bumper to the health of his friends, who pledge him respectively in their turns. Lambs stuffed and baked, with the skins drawn on, are served up, and are the principal dishes. Pitchers of wine go round in pretty quick succession. The guests grow warm, and presently the buffoon comedians enter. Songs set to slow, grave tunes, usher in their sports; the music presently becomes more sprightly, and freedom of sentiment goes round. Some seize the lyre, while others rise to dance. They generally begin first a dance performed by one or two persons. This dance being brisk, and performed with a bounding step, resembles the rigadoon very much; which, indeed, appears to be of Greek origin. They then proceed in irregular figures, which cannot well be described, until the whole ends in a general confusion.
Honey is in very great estimation with the Greeks. That gathered on mount Hymettus, was anciently consecrated to the use of religious festivals. It is now much coveted by them, even in the state in which it is taken from the hive.
Olives, which Greece, and the country about Athens, in particular, furnish in great abundance, are much in request with this people. They give the same name to pickled olives, as the ancients. Cakes of meal, also form a part of the Greek feast, and are in great request with them.
Homer
mentions, that in his time, they were always prepared by the women. It is the same now. On the eve of Easter, and other great festivals, these cakes are always sent by the Greeks, as presents to each other.
The ancient custom of eating their corn parched, or roasted, which must necessarily have preceded the present method of bruising, or grinding it, still subsists. In Greece, Turkish corn in the grain, and chickpease, boiled, are a very general food.
It is among the common people we must always look for ancient manners. They refine but little, and are ever tenacious of the traditions handed down to them by their ancestors; and so much attached to them, that they bear with them the force of so many laws. In the reports of the modern Greeks, we find not only the ancient excess, and simplicity of behaviour; but also those festal crowns, which paint in such lively colours, the heart-felt joy of the jocund revellers. Lovers also, ornament their heads with crowns of flowers, and make garlands of them; which they afterwards hang in wreaths, and various festoons, over the doors of their mistresses. When a Greek crowns himself with flowers, it denotes that he carries the livery of love; or, that he is engaged in some festive debauch. Such was the crown worn by that young rake
Polemon,
at Athens; of whom, a pleasant adventure is related by
Diogenes Laertius.
'Sallying forth one day, after a debauch, and hot with the juice of the grape; he stumbled, unexpectedly, into the school of
Xenocrates.
His dress, though ill-suited to the taste of a philosophic academy, for he was crowned with flowers, perfumed with essences, and tricked out with all the arts of foppery, was no impediment to his mixing in an assembly of so contrary a character. Taking a seat in the midst of the philosophers, he began to interrupt the order of their school, by ill-timed questions, and ridiculous observations.
Xenocrates,
without any alteration of features or manner, changed the subject he was then upon, and turned all his rhetoric, into an attack upon the folly of intemperance. His oratory had such an effect on the young libertine, that his reason immediately returned to him. He tore the crown from his head, and threw it on the ground, at the feet of
Xenocrates:
stung with a sense of shame and remorse, for his past conduct, he was unable to bear the sight of those about him; but wrapping himself in his cloke, he at once concealed his fully and himself. Converted by this means, to the love of philosophy, he soon became one of his most assiduous disciples.
Athenaeus
informs us, that the gallants of his time, decorated the doors of the fair they admired, with flowers; in the same manner, that the doors of their temples were adorned. It is no doubt, from thence, that the modern Greeks derive the custom of crowning the doors of their own, and their mistresses houses, annually, on the first of May. On this day, the young men present themselves before the doors of their favourite ladies, walking to and fro, endeavouring to draw them, at least, to the windows, by songs and instruments. In ancient times, on these occasions, the young men even addressed the houses, where the fair resided, in the most plaintive and moving terms. Sometimes in cases of obdurate treatment, when urged to desperation, they have not refrained from bursting open the doors. But other lovers, more patient under their sufferings, quietly contented themselves with laying down at the threshold of the door, which continued shut on purpose for their preclusion.
Nothing, says
Guy,
has offered me greater pleasure, and entertainment, than the Greek dances. Every country has some peculiar dances to itself, and Greece is not deficient in that particular; on the contrary, it has a great variety. The Greeks have some dances expressive of their national character, which must be of very ancient extraction; and, as it were, hereditary to them. They are easy to learn; imitation supplies the want of masters. Dances composed of many steps, and intricate figures, requiring great attention and precision, are easily forgot; but the common dancers of every country, being more simple, gay, and easy, are never lost; because, frequently repeated. These last are practised at every festival. The young men and women are ambitious to excel in them; and the old people delight to be spectators of their performances; even children in their infancy, who can scarce walk with firmness, kick about their little heels in imitation of the dancers.
A company of Greeks, in the country villages, old and young, hand in hand, dancing and singing verses, writ for the purpose, in a style of altercation, brings to remembrance the Lacedemonian choirs, when the old men attack the youth in these words:
We once were young and gay as you,
Valiant, and bold, and active too.
To which the youth answer:
'Tis now our turn, and you shall see,
You ne'er deserv'd it more than we.
The children too, bear their part in the ceremony, crying out with their little shrill voices,
The day will come when we shall shew
Feats, that surpass all you can do.
The passion of the Greeks for dancing, is common to both sexes; who neglect every other consideration, when they have an opportunity of indulging that passion. We find a passage in
Herodotus,
which might serve as a lesson against the extravagant length they sometimes carry it.
Clysthenes,
prince of Syconia, having declared, he would marry his daughter to that person who should possess the greatest valour, invited to his court, all those who might aspire to an alliance with the princess. He proposed his guests should pass some time with him, that he might be the better able to examine into their characters. The two Athenians who were candidates, became his favourites, and principally
Hypoclides,
son of
Tysander,
one greatly renowned for his courage.
The day being come on which he was to make his choice, he gave a superb entertainment to the suitors for his daughter. After the repast, they began to sing; a free circulation of the bottle ensued, and the guests became exhilarated.
Hypoclides
desired the performers to play a serious dance; in the execution of which, he seemed to take more delight himself, than he afforded the spectators.
Clysthenes
attended to the whole, but seemed to take no notice.
Hypoclides,
after resting awhile, ordered a second table to be brought, in which he exhibited a dance after the Spartan manner, and afterwards fell into the Athenian figures. At length, being elevated to a most extraordinary pitch, he presented the company with a dance, which consisted of holding up the hands and clapping them.
Clysthenes,
who had by this time conceived the greatest aversion for the dancer, could no longer contain his indignation at such ridiculous behaviour, but calls out to him to desist, with these remarkable words:
son of Tysander, thou has danced away a wife.
A young Greek of the present age, heated by dancing and wine, would be likely to commit the same excess as
Hypoclides, and dance away his marriage.
This exercise, is, doubtless, of all countries, and of all ages; but the Greeks have carried it to greater excess than other nations. Among them, the dance was formerly one of the gymnastic sports. It entered into the science of physic, and was prescribed by the faculty on many occasions. Even the military schools admitted it into their practice. All conditions of people were fond of it. In the end, it was introduced as part of the ceremony at festivals. It gave life and spirit to those meetings. The poets themselves, recited and sung their verses, dancing at the same time:
Plato, Aristotle, Xenophon, Plutarch, Lucian, Athenaeus,
and all the most famous Greek authors of antiquity, have written in favour of dancing.
Anacreon,
the prince of jollity and pleasure, was always fond of dancing; he even practised it in his old age.
Aspasia,
whose very appearance was capable of exciting the most agreeable sensations in the minds of all beholders, charmed
Socrates
so much with her dancing, that he could not refrain from imitating her. "You laugh, says
Socrates
to his friends, because you see me dancing like young people. You think it ridiculous then, to practise so salutary an exercise, and which tends to render the body light? Am I then to blame, for endeavouring to diminish, by dancing, the corpulent state of my body? You do not know, perhaps, that
Charmides,
who is here, surprised me the other day, when I was dancing in my own house? It is true, said
Charmides,
and I was so astonished, that I thought at first you were out of your mind; but, when I had heard what you now repeat upon dancing, I was impatient, when I returned home, to endeavour to imitate you."
Aristides,
notwithstanding what
Plato
said, danced at a feast given hy
Dionysius,
the tyrant.
Scipio Africanus,
after their example, entertained some company at his own house with a dance, in which strength and agility were united.
Cornelius Nepos,
who wrote the life of
Epaminondas,
describing the great qualities of his hero, expatiates on his talents for music and dancing.
If men valued themselves for excelling in this art, it must be an essential qualification for women. It was from seeing
Helen
dance at the festival of
Diana,
that
Theseus
and
Perithous
conceived the design of running off with her.
Dionysius,
the geographical poet, mentions certain dances which the Greek women of Asia Minor practised on the banks of the Caistor. "You will see, says he, the women dressed in their richest girdles, performing the dances made for the festival of
Bacchus,
composed of figures in a circular form, and executed with the greatest regularity and neatness. The girls also join in them; the delicacy of their form, the elegance of their motions, and the gracefulness of their robes, gently waving with the wind, presenting a most enchanting sight to the spectators.
The modern Greek ladies, are equally capable of giving satisfaction to those who come to gaze upon them. Formerly, the dances represented the actions and manners of the people; for which reason,
Lucian
lays it down as a rule, that a dancer, to excel in his art, ought to be well instructed in the fables and history of the heathen deities.
At all their festivals, they sung the praises of the divinity they met to celebrate; and the dances which followed the songs, described the principal actions of the god. Among others, they danced the triumph of
Bacchus,
and the nuptials of
Venus;
the love of
Diana
and
Endymion;
the judgment of
Paris,
and
Europa
's passion for
Jove.
All these dances were so many moving pictures, where the gestures and step, the motions of the limbs, and the inflexions of the body, described the most interesting situations; in short, all the movements the human body was capable of.
The dancers who now exhibit in the streets or fields, and run about hand in hand, represent those ancient dances, which composed part of the public worship. The modern Greeks never celebrate any festival, or solemnity, without dancing round the altar; or, at least, about the temple, agreeable to the custom of their ancestors.
The Greeks had different chorusses of songs and dances. The orbicular choir, which sang the
Dithyrambi,
and danced to that species of song in praise of
Bacchus,
had a particular figure which it also performed. Sometimes the hands were extended, at other times folded together; and, at last, they danced round the altar. Since the decline of the Greek theatre, these choirs are reduced to a meer round-about figure, which the Greeks still use. They continue the same method, of extending and folding the hands, dancing sometimes to the sound of the lyre; at others, to the chanting of hymns; but not round the altar of
Bacchus,
and the rest of their gods, as formerly: the modern Greeks fix upon some towering oak, and crown it with flowers, and other decorations; under the shadow of which, they celebrate their most solemn festivals, renewing the ancient orgies, with the same licentiousness and excess.
The present age very often exhibits an exact image of the ancient choirs of Greek nymphs; and when they dance, hand in hand, round the meadows, or in the woods, recall to mind those ancient descriptions given by the poets of
Diana,
and her choir; whether on mount Delos, or on the banks of Eurotas, as
Virgil
says, she leads the mazy dance, accompanied by the nymphs of her train.
The Eleusinian women, instituted certain dances, which they practised about a well called
Callichorus.
These were accompanied by songs which they sung in honor of the goddess.
In the like manner, says
Guys,
I have seen in Princes-island; the young women, who were assembled round a well in the evening, to draw water, suddenly strike up a dance, while others sung in concert to them.
Aristotle
observes of the public wells, that they serve as cements to society, uniting the citizens of each village, in the bands of friendship, by the social intercourse of so frequently dancing together round them. He adds, the ancients composed verses, which were sung by the people, while they drew water, and were called
songs of the well.
The ancient Greeks had their nuptial dances, as well as the present age.
Musaeus,
mentioning the secret marriage of
Hero
and
Leander,
says, it was performed without the customary dances. "The nuptial bed, it is true, was prepared, but the hymenaeal songs, the epithalamium, and the torch, were omitted."
The principal dances, now in fashion among the Greeks, are the Candian, Greek, Arnatic, Wallachian, Pyrrhic, and the country dances.
The first two are very much alike; one appears to have been copied from the other, except that the airs are different. A young woman always leads in both, holding in her hands a handkerchief, or silken string.
The Candian is the most ancient of any of them; we have an account of it in
Homer,
in his description of the famous buckler of
Achilles.
"After enumerating many of the subjects described on that wonderful piece of art,
Vulcan,
says he, represents a dance of admirable variety, very similar to that which the ingenious
Daedalus
invented, in the city of Gnossus, for the lovely
Ariadne.
The young men and women join hands and dance together. The women, being dressed in robes of fine stuff, have also crowns upon their heads. The men wear beautiful habits, of the most brilliant colour. Sometimes the whole set close in a circle, and dance round with so much rapidity and justness, that the motion of a wheel is not more swift and even. At other times they separate; and, dividing into parties, describe an infinite number of turns and figures in their movements."
The Candian dance of the moderns, is nearly similar. The air is soft and tender, and begins with a slow tune, but presently after grows more lively and animating. She who leads the dance, performs a number of figures and traverse lines; the variety of which, produces a very agreeable and interesting spectacle.
From the Candian, sprung the Greek dance, which the islanders are yet very fond of, called
Ariadne
's dance; see the plate, which exhibits the temple of
Minerva,
now standing. In this dance, the men and women begin with the same steps and figures, but separately; and, joining afterwards, mix together without any order or regularity. The woman who leads the dance, after chusing a partner, takes him by the hand, and presents him with one end of a ribband, or silken string, holding the other herself; the rest of the dancers pass and repass under this string, (being generally of a considerable length) one party as if flying, and the other seeming to pursue. The movements th
n become slower, and the whole party forms into a circle; the conductress, after many turns, and changes of situations, rolls, as it were, the whole set about her. The dexterity of the lady, consists in quickly disengaging herself from this embarrassment, and appearing again at the head of the dancers, who are very numerous and by this time placed in ranks. Waving her hand with an air of triumph and exhultation, she reposes the ribband as at the beginning.
It will readily occur to our learned readers, that the idea of this dance, was taken from the labyrinth of Crete.
Callimachus,
in his hymn to
Delos,
mentions it, and says, that
Theseus,
who invented it first, led the dance himself.
Eustathius,
in his strictures on the eighteenth book of the Iliad, says, that anciently the men and women danced in separate parties, and that
Theseus
was the first who mixed them together, in the dance performed by the youth. He made the young men and maidens, whom he had saved from the Cretan labyrinth, dance before him together, in the same manner as
Daedalus
had instructed them apart.
In the
monumenti Antichi,
of
Winckleman,
an antique vase is described, where
Theseus
is represented before
Ariadne.
The hero has in her hand, the famous clue of thread, by which he escaped from the labyrinth of Crete;
Ariadne,
habited in the dress of a dancer, with a
caftan,
or Greek robe, has a string in both her hands, precisely such as the modern dancers use, when they lead the Greek dance.
The Arnatic, is another dance belonging to the Greeks. It is of a very ancient date, and peculiar to the military. Formerly, the Greeks had many dances of this kind: they even engaged the enemy fighting.
Diodorus,
the Sicilian, relates the same of the Lusitanians.
The Arnatic, is led by a man and a woman. The man, with a whip in one hand, and a stick in the other, runs about animating the rest, from one end of the set to the other, stamping with his feet, and smacking with his whip; while the others, joining hands, follow him with the same kind of step, but not so violent.
THE PYRRHIC DANCE.
The Pyrrhic is the true military dance, and has the honour of claiming its descent from
Pyrrhus,
king of Epirus, who sustained such a long war against the Romans. There are many dances which bear this name.
Xenophon,
speaking of the Thracians, who exhibited at the festival of their prince
Seuthes,
says, a dance was performed by armed men, with a kind of jumping step, to the music of flutes; one party attacking very dexterously with their lances; while the other, with equal address, parried the thrusts with their shields. The poor subdued Greeks, of the presentage, have nothing to do with these dances; but their masters, the Turks, have thought proper to adopt them in their exercises; and are now the only people in Greece who exercise the Pyrrhic games. The music of the Pyrrhic dance, as performed at present in Constantinople, is pleasing. A few remains of this dance, says
Guys,
are, however, yet to be found in that part of Greece, called Magnesia, and at Misitra; a country rendered famous by the Spartans. It is inhabited by a savage people, of Greek descent, governed by their own laws; who, conscious of their inability to attack a powerful empire, which, if provoked, might crush them, are contented with preserving their independence, and are now become the most daring pirates of the Archipelago.
The
Ionian dance;
which, according to
Athenaeus,
was performed when the parties were a little exhilarated by wine, may not be improperly mentioned in this class, notwithstanding it was more gentle and regular. It has a kind of tripping step, which is much in fashion at Smyrna, and in Asia Minor; where a taste for lascivious dances always predominated. The Turks take great delight in these dances.
The Greeks have also the Wallachian dance, which is of very ancient date, in the country from whence the name is borrowed. This dance, which has but one uniform step, and different from every other, is very pleasing when well executed. This dance, most probably, is descended from the Dacians; who, formerly inhabited Wallachia.
The games, or pastimes, are nearly allied to the dances. By games, we do not mean those celebrated ones, which were the epochs of the most glorious ages of the Greeks: they no longer exist. It is only of the pastimes of the modern Greeks, of the amusements of their young people, and even of their children, that we intend to treat. It will be necessary, however, to advert to the inferior pastimes of the ancients, to shew, that the origin of our most trifling amusements, may be traced back to the earliest ages. From the ancients, we derive the game of even and odd, and other similar ones.
Ludere par impar, equitare in arundine longâ.
Hor. Sat. iii. lib. 2.
The Lydians, according to
Herodotus,
pass for the inventors of these games, and their origin is singular. Hunger had as great a share in giving birth to them, as indolence. The Lydians, under the reign of
Athis,
were afflicted with a cruel famine; and, to avoid the violent exercises, which excited a keener sense of hunger, they invented the games of dice and
osselets,
which are still in use among the Greeks. It is played with little shells, and in a box, where the respective players have their points before them. They call it the
Mangala.
The game of tennis, is likewise of Lydian extraction; a fatiguing game, which does not appear to correspond much with their intentions; except, that it helped, from the eagerness it excites to, what we call, kill time. The honour of inventing the game of chess, is, by the ancients, universally attributed, and from the same cause, to
Palamedes.
The lovers of
Penelope,
passed their time in the court of
Ulysses,
in playing at this game. They made use of dice and pebbles, and each had a set of his own. A mark was placed in the middle, which they called
Penelope.
This was the object at which they were all to take aim; and the players were ranged in equal numbers, at a considerable distance, and opposite to each other for that purpose.
The top, or gig, which
Horace
calls a Greek game, was formerly in great use.
The game of cross, or pile, bore anciently, the name of
head,
or
ship;
the coin, at that time, being struck with the head of
Janus
on one side, and a vessel or ship on the other. The word pile, comes from the Greek word
pilos,
which signifies a ship.
The game we call even or odd, was by the Greeks, called
artios mon.
They made use of nuts, almonds, or pieces of money. The Romans, according to
Horace,
were fond of this game;
equitare in arundine longâ,
or riding on a stick, is a play which has been practised in all countries.
Agesilaus
and
Socrates,
are known to have amused themselves among the children, in running about with a long reed between their legs.
Nuts afforded the ancients a variety of games, which still subsist with some little variations; indeed, it is not possible that such simple and voluntary games, should have any fixed existence.
Ovid
has been very minute in his account of them.
The Greeks celebrate the festival of the spring, with great enthusiasm, as announcing the return of the zephyrs and roses. On this occasion, the children at Rhodes, demanded a tribute, and had a play and song, which they still preserve. From thence, no doubt, comes the present custom with us, of demanding a tribute on the first of May; not for the swallow, as formerly, but for the pretty maiden, who is dressed out in her finest gown, and decorated with all the flowers of the spring.
The children of Rhodes, went about in companies singing and dancing, and demanded a gift of those they met, for the swallow that was newly arrived; from thence, the festival had its name, from the Greek word
Clidonia,
or the swallow. Their song began in this manner:
"See, see, the swallow comes,
"And spring with lovely days appears.
The saw, is a game much in vogue with the Greeks. The youth of both sexes, particularly the girls, take great delight in it, while the fine weather lasts; and as they balance themselves, repeat alternately, such airs as they have been taught to sing. The Greeks called this game
aioras;
and the Latins,
oscilla.
Another game of the ancients still in use, is to draw a circle upon a large table, or on the floor; and to win, it was necessary to throw a die, or small pellet, from a considerable distance, into the middle of the circle. Sometimes a quail was put into it; and he, who, by striking him with the finger only, made him quit the circle, so that the bird passed the boundaries of it, either in retreating back, or in touching the extremity of it with the tip of his wings; if he extended them he was the winner. They likewise practise another play with the quail, by tying it to a little stake, and taking every one a stick in his hand; each in his turn, being blindfolded, is obliged to go twenty or thirty yards from the bird; and if, on his return he can hit the bird, he is conqueror.
The Greeks still play at blind-man's-buff; an ancient, and formerly, an universal game all over Greece. It was formerly called
muinda.
They put an earthen pot into the hands of the person who was muffled; the others run about provoking him, and crying out,
Who has the pot?
He answers,
Midas has it,
and the person he can lay hold of, is obliged, in his turn, to be blinded and take it.
The Greeks still continue the
hop.
He who goes furthest on one leg, without resting, is the winner. The likewise fold the leaves of roses and poppies, into the shape of little bladders, in order to smack them upon the forehead; and, by the noise they make, judge of the degrees of affection in their lover.
The paintings of Herculaneum, recal to mind the barbarous custom of whipping and beating children; which, unhappily, is the practice of
our
schools, as well as the Greek. What sort of fathers must those be, who commit, to a stranger, the power of inflicting at his own will, an ignominious and public chastisement upon their children? Who would have supposed, this practice could have prevailed in any nation, except where rigorous punishments were used in correcting slaves? I have seen, says
Guys,
the parents in Greece, hold out the rod to their children when they offended, as if no method could be devised, but that of punishing them like slaves. From the Greeks, is derived that shameful practice of schoolmasters; who, so indecently, bare the backs of innocent children. At the same time, that they impress marks of the greatest cruelty upon their tender bodies, they render their minds callous to that sense of shame, which should ever predominate in liberal minds. Here then we have, the origin of those torturing instruments, so lavishly inflicted by the pedantic tyrants; which
Martial,
not improperly, calls
sceptra pedagorum.
The custom of ancient Greece, was to fasten the child to a post, or to have him held by some person, in the English method of
horsing,
while the master was mauling his flesh. This species of punishment, was called
catomium;
a custom, which, to the reproach of mankind, has ever since been in practice. Perhaps, to glut the sanguine dispositions of those masters, who are are desirous of making reprisals on the backs of others, for what they had suffered on their own; these wretches exercise the same inhumanity in their turn on the tender delicacy of youth; which, on the contrary, demands all possible indulgence and regard.
To discover the success of their amours, the Greeks no longer apply the leaves of roses; which, as
Anacreon
informs us, they did by smacking them between the hands, and which the children do at present; it is the
Clidona,
which now discovers every thing, and the oracle which the Greek youth consult.
On the evening of the day appointed for this ceremony, two girls, to whom the management of it is confided, apply to the young men and maids, desirous of being concerned in it; from each of whom, they are to receive a pledge of some kind or other; such as a ring, a piece of money, &c. which are afterwards put into a vase. These conductresses, then fill the vase with water, from some sacred fountain, and cover it with myrtle and laurel leaves, observing the most profound silence during the whole time. The vase is afterwards exposed in the open air, and carefully attended till the next morning. The parties concerned being then assembled, one of the vestals opens the vase, while the other sings, or recites a couplet of lines, composed for the game, which is called the overture of the
Clidona.
Each person in turn, is now required to recite a Greek distich, while they draw one of the pledges from the vase: this distich, is considered as an answer to his or her enquiry, to whom the pledge belongs. Sometimes, when many of the parties are dissatisfied, all the pledges are again put into the vase, and the game re-commenced. This is but a repetition of the first play; except that the players, oftentimes being soured and disgusted with a second instance of ill fortune, divest themselves of all regard to decency, and utter such abandoned sentiments in the couplets they recite, as to oblige all those to retire, who have the least sense of delicacy.
The young Greeks, of both sexes, know by heart a great number of these couplets and songs, of all kinds, which they repeat with wonderful facility. There are also tragedies written in modern Greek; which only serve to shew the great difference, between the ancient and modern Muses.
The custom of bathing, so frequent among the ancient Greeks, is not less so among the moderns. It is practised, at present, with all the
minutioe
of former times. Besides the public baths, which are generally much frequented, persons of condition have them in their houses. They pass immediately from the bath to the couch, on which they take their repast; from thence, most probably, came the ancient custom of eating in a careless recumbent posture.
The Greeks took but one repast in the four and twenty hours, which was in the evening; and the use of the bath immediately preceded the entertainment. A practice continued through succeeding ages to the present time. The attachment of this people, to local customs, is worthy of imitation. The ancients never used any but the hot baths. The Turks and modern Greeks follow their example.
"We are fond of magnificence, in dress, says
Alcinous
to
Ulysses,
delight in the hot baths, in gallantry, and in dancing." The modern Greeks may say the same. If the use of hot baths is pernicious to beauty, as it is generally represented to be, the force of custom must be wonderful; since the women have ever followed the ancients in this particular. But it is certainly very salutary to the constitution, and particularly to that of old persons, whom it strengthens, instead of enfeebling; by facilitating that gentle and necessary perspiration; which, otherwise, is with difficulty performed, by reason of the dryness of their skin; the pores of which, are closer than those of younger men. It is certain, the use of the hot bath prevents many of those disorders, which attack men of an advanced age; and that disorders of the breast are very rare among this people.
The Greeks and Turks, particularly the women, make use of a glutinous kind of earth, to wash their head and hair with, while in the bath. It is found in the islands of the Archipelago, and on the coast of the Black Sea. The Greeks formerly used the same kind of earth, for washing linen; and it supplied the place of soap.
Pliny
takes notice of the
Ghian earth,
which the women, he says, made use of for the hair and skin. It is used by the modern Greeks, for the skin; which, by gently rubbing, it renders softer and more smooth. Ghio, anciently Cius, is a city of Bythinia, near the gulf of Mondagna.
Belon,
who travelled through Greece, in 1546, in a discourse, entitled,
Que les femmes de Turquie sont belles par singularité, et nettes comme perles,
mentions a passage of
Dioscorides,
that this earth, which softened the skin, gave also a freshness to the complexion.
The Greek women bathe, at least, once in every month; formerly, the laws prescribed it oftener. — At the
neomenia,
or new moon, they never failed to perform this obligation.
An intended bride, on the eve of the nuptial day, is conducted to the bath with great ceremony, and with the sound of several instruments.
When
Naomi,
in the bible, instructs the young widow
Ruth,
how to appear to advantage before
Boaz,
to induce him to marry her; she says to
Ruth
— "Wash thy feet, therefore, and anoint thee, and put thy best raiment on."
CHAP. XL.
Marriages, Midwifry, Paternal Affection, and Hospitality.
WE may easily conclude, that a people devoted to festivals, could not proceed to solemnize the marriage, without adding all the brilliancy and decorations, of which, such an event is susceptible. Among the most savage nations, we find, that men celebrate the day on which they form a lasting attachment with the fair, as the most joyful and important of their lives. But, to exhibit marriage under the most pleasing aspect, we should present it with simplicity of manners; and, accompanied with the gaiety, purity, and innocence, with which that rite was performed in the earliest times. The Greeks of the present age, adverting to the customs of the ancients, have retained most of the ceremonies, which were formerly used in the celebration of nuptials. They considered an early entrance into the marriage, as the indispensable duty of a good citizen; and, therefore, engaged in it very young. The laws of Sparta, were extremely rigorous, in marking those for infamy, who remained in a state of celibacy. At Sparta, upon the celebration of a certain festival, the women were permitted to seize the young men who remained unmarried; to drag them before the altars, and to chastise them with whips.
The chaste
Theognis
told the Greeks, "That he was the richest and happiest man, who possessed a gentle and virtuous wife. But why consult philosophy, which often becomes embarrassed, and falls into an uncertainty worse than the darkest ignorance? A young man applying to
Socrates,
for his opinion, whether he should marry or not, was told by the philosopher, 'That, to which ever opinion he adhered, he would infallibly repent. If he preferred a life of celibacy, that he would not enjoy the pleasure of having children of his own, and that his wealth would go to a stranger. If he took a wife, that he might expect eternal vexation and endless strife. If she was well dowered, incessant reproaches must be expected on that head. The pride also of her relations, and the tongue of his step-mother, would become insupportable; and, if handsome, that he would have to dread her gallantry, and be in continual doubt as to the paternity of his children.' After this, says the sage,
'Let him judge if he can, and chuse if he dare.'
Themistocles
being asked by a rich man, who had an only daughter, whom he should prefer as a husband for her; a man of character without a fortune; or, one who was rich, but a scoundrel. I should rather, replied
Themistocles,
have a man without money, than money without a man.
The modern Greek has no philosophers to consult; and, therefore, no deliberations about marriage. Hence, population is better promoted among the Greeks than the Turks. The latter also, living under a military government, destroy without remorse, but never think of repairing. From this cause, the most considerable cities of Greece, have never been rebuilt by their conquerors. Beneficence and vanity, have, indeed, produced among the Turks, a few public edifices. But, in a country where property is held by such precarious tenure, they can have no idea of perpetuating any possession; nor can they contemplate the situation of their posterity, with satisfaction or tranquility.
In the mean time, the Greek, the Armenian, and the Jew; people that abound in the Turkish empire, and whom the Turks hold in such contempt, as not to fear the number of their slaves, abandon themselves to their natural inclinations. These confide in the hope of a numerous posterity, who shall, at some future period, recover all those territories which the conquerors of Greece have ravaged from them. Marriage must, of course, be an institution favourable to their hopes; and celibacy is, accordingly, very rare among them.
The modern Greeks have no fixed seasons for the celebration of their nuptials. The ancients usually celebrated them in the month of January; from thence, called
Gamelion;
but they have, as formerly, mediatrices whom they still call
Proxenetes;
and these are as necessary as ever. For the young women being almost constantly immersed in the
Gynaeceon,
a man can decide on the merits of the lady, who is proposed to him, only by the report he receives from the mediatrix. The moment a lady has dropped her veil to any man, he is engaged to her beyond the power of retracting.
Anciently, the possession of a woman was only to be purchased, by a term of actual servitude to the father. That imposition was afterwards removed, and the servitude converted into certain presents. Still, says
Montesquieu,
the custom prevails among the Greeks, that he who marries, should purchase his wife by presents made to her parents.
A Greek, says
Guys,
no doubt, always makes presents to the bride; these, however, are neither obligatory, nor as the purchase of his wife, but spontaneous. He would not, most probably, have taken her without a portion suitable to her condition.
The ancient Greeks, always scrupulous observers of the primitive laws of marriage, abhorred bigamy.
Euripides
makes
Hermione,
in the tragedy, say, "It is contrary to good order, that two women should be at the same time under the dominion of one man."
Charondas
went further in the code he formed for the Thurians. These, according to
Diodorus,
he directs, that those who bring a stepmother to their children, should be excluded the public councils. He judged, that men capable of rendering such an ill office to their family, could have no good intention towards their country. "For, says he, if the first marriage has been happy, there they should stop. On the contrary, if it has been miserable, they must be mad to risk a second engagement." The Greeks of the present time, though less free than their ancestors, would not submit to such a restraint as the Thurian code imposed.
Unequal matches were as common, in former times, as in the present. "A man of rank, says
Theognis,
stoops to espouse a rich woman who dishonours him; and a virtuous girl, marries a villain for his wealth. They, the good and bad, are promiscuously joined; and, from thence springs a degenerate race."
Telesicles,
father of the famous
Archilocus,
tarnished the lustre of his birth, by a disproportioned marriage with
Enipo,
a slave. The Greeks, says the Abbé
Sewin,
in commenting on this passage, beheld unequal alliances with sovereign contempt; and the shame was often reflected on their children. Modern Greeks, call the offspring of such marriages, the children of a slave. They observe exactly, the ancient precept,
si vis nubere, nube pari;
if you will marry, marry an equal; so well illustrated by the epigram of
Callimachus,
and carefully avoid disgraceful alliances.
Among the Greeks, the ceremony of marriage is preceded by festivals. The ancients, called them
prolusoria,
the same appellation that they gave the preludes of the solemn sacrifices to
Juno
and
Diana.
Marriage, says a shepherd of
Theocritus,
brings neither cares nor vexation, but is always attended by mirth and festivity.
Homer
has described the ceremonial of nuptial pageants, on the famous shield of
Achilles.
The bride and bridegroom going from their house, are received by numbers of persons, ranged in the most exact order, who conduct them through the streets with a blaze of torches; the air resounding with the chant of hymeneal songs. Some precede, others follow the procession, dancing to the melody of flutes and trumpets.
The Greeks still observe the same disposition in their nuptial processions. Numerous attendants, and music, are always to be found upon these occasions. The processions are generally opened, to the harmony of a variety of instruments, and with dancing. The bride profusely adorned, with looks abashed, proceeds in a solemn pace, supported by her friends and nearest relations; during which, the epithalamium is performing. The bride, formerly, wore a red or yellow veil; a custom still continued by the Armenians. This veil, called
flammeum,
covers the head, and descends almost to the feet.
The splendid torch of
Hymen;
that torch, so well known and celebrated by the poets, even to consecration, as an emblem of marriage, still maintains its place among the modern Greeks. This torch blazes in their processions, and is an attendant afterwards on the bridal bed. There it is placed, to wait the arrival of the new married pair; and remains until the whole is consumed. If, by any accident, it should become extinguished, the most unfortunate presages would be drawn; to prevent which, unremitting vigilance is used. The sacred fire could not be more attentively watched by the vestals.
Among the ancient Greeks, the nuptial torch was carried by the mother of the bride. It was her office to prepare, and adorn the bridal bed; she officiated as
pronuba,
and led the bride to her chamber: as the nearest relation, she acted likewise as
paranymphus,
and conducted the bridegroom in like manner.
The
pronuba
and
paranymphus,
are represented by the modern Greeks, in the persons of the marriage sponsors, who accompany the married pair through every part of the ceremony.
The bride and bridegroom, before their presentation at the altar, are each adorned with a crown, or chaplet; which, during the ceremony, is changed by the priest. He first presents the man with the crown taken from his wife, and then delivers that of the man to her. This ceremony, which has its origin from the ancients, is still practised by the moderns.
The greatest part of the dowry consists in precious stones, and in magnificent dresses, which are exhibited with uncommon ostentation.
In this, they follow the ancient Greeks.
Hermione
says, in
Andromache,
"The ornaments of gold which now adorn my head, and that variety of robes I possess, came to me neither from
Achilles,
nor from
Peleus,
I brought them from Sparta.
Menelaus,
my father, presented them to me, with a dowry still more considerable; to the end, that I might speak with freedom."
The Grecians celebrate their marriage feasts, with various diversions of dancing, and play. Vaulters, and tumblers, are provided at those times, to entertain the guests, with exertions of strength and agility.
Homer
paints a scene of this kind, in a manner much resembling the moderns.
Telemachus,
and the son of
Nestor,
arrived at the court of
Menelaus,
whilst he was celebrating the marriage of his daughter. They found him at table among his friends; the palace resounding with the cries of joy, mixed with the melody of various instruments, and the loud chorusses of the singers. One performer, distinguished in a circle, introduced, says a poet, by the skilful touch of his lyre, the most divine harmony; whilst the vaulters, and buffoons, by dances of agility, surpassing belief, astonished and delighted the whole assembly. This species of dancing, was, in subsequent times, deemed licentious: and the council of Laodicea, held about the year 367, thought itself obliged to prohibit such kind of dances, at the celebration of nuptials.
Among the Greeks, a widow seldom re-marries. According to
Pausanias,
second marriages were forbidden by the ancients. He says, also, that
Gorgophona,
who married
Oebalus,
was the first instance of a woman espousing a second husband.
The modern Greeks are, by their religion, solemnly enjoined continence, the first night of marriage. The fourth council of Carthage, held after the defeat of
Gildon,
in 398, at which, St.
Augustin,
with one hundred and fourteen bishops, assisted, directed, that the married pair, out of respect to the holy sacrament of marriage, should, on the first night, observe the most rigid forbearance of nuptial pleasures.
A bride bears the same appellation among the modern Greeks, by which she was distinguished among the ancients. She is called, by those of her own family, from the Greek word
neumphae,
nymph.
Penelope
says, in
Ovid
's epistles, that, "Nymphs speaking of the brides, joyfully bear their offsprings to the altars; that the gods may preserve their husbands."
Grata ferunt nymphae, pro salvis dona maritis.
The art of physic is not only exercised by the women, in most of the Greek islands; but the delivery of women in child-birth, is their peculiar province; the appearance of a surgeon, on such occasions, being extremely obnoxious to the Greek women.
Montesquieu,
who has made the most profound researches into ancient customs, has not omitted to relate the account of a young female Athenian; who, when the republic had proscribed the practice of physic, or midwifry to that sex, disguised herself in the habit of a man, to learn the obstetric art, that she might be enabled to relieve the women from the embarrassments they suffered, in being compelled, to seek assistance from men, on occasions of child-birth: their delicacy being so great, in such cases, that many of them perished for want of assistance. The young female Athenian, found no reason to complain of want of business, in her newly acquired art; on the contrary, the whole practice of the faculty centered in her: from whence suspicions, which were soon after verified. She was brought before the court of the Areopagus, to answer for her conduct.
Agnodice,
for that was her name, had no great difficulty in justifying her proceedings. She confessed the disguise, but produced the most authentic testimony, of her having assumed it, generally, for the benefit of human nature; and of her friends in particular. The justice of the court, admitted her excuse; the proscription was taken off; and the women were permitted to follow the profession without restraint, which they have ever since continued to practise. A midwife, is a character greatly esteemed by the modern Greeks.
Conjugal affection is to be found in as great a degree, among the modern Greeks, as in the descriptions we meet of it, in the times of ancient Greece. All that
Claudian
says, of the dignity of the mother, who, by that title alone, preserved the same rank in her husband's affections, which the attractions of her youth had before obtained, is exactly verified in the present age.
Paternal affection, and filial affection, are also virtues still subsisting, and without the least diminution in Greece. They shone, it is true, with greater lustre in the first ages; because poets paid more attention to them.
Homer,
when he describes the joy of
Ulysses,
at the prospect of his safety, after having been floating a long time on the waves, compares it to that of a child, beholding its father, whom it tenderly loved, restored to health, after a long and desperate illness, which had reduced him to the brink of the grave. 'And such, says
Homer,
was the joy of
Ulysses,
when he first got ashore.
Hospitality is another virtue, in which the Greeks are never deficient. The arrival of a stranger, puts the whole house in gala, and the best apartments are destined for his use.
The primitive christians were the first who practised hospitality, after the example of the Greeks and Romans. Among the latter, inns were frequented, but by the lowest class of vagabonds only. Persons of distinction, or reputation, never travelled without letters of recommendation, to all the towns through which their affairs required them to pass. The persons to whom these letters were addressed, always received, and lodged such travellers in their houses. This intercourse of recommendation, as the
Abbé Fleury
observes, became, in process of time, hereditary to the different parts of Greece and Italy; and joined the natives in the strongest bands of friendship and alliance. They even regarded hospitality as a duty of religion.
Jupiter
himself, presided at the hospitable feast. And not only the table provided for the guests, but the person of the stranger, was sacred in all places.
Diodorus
relates, that
Gellius,
the richest man in Agrigentum, retained a certain number of domestics, for the express purpose of inviting all strangers, to come and take up their lodgings at his house; and, that several of his fellow-citizens followed his example in a certain degree.
CHAP. XLI.
Funerals.
HAVING now seen the Greeks on their days of festivity and marriage; we shall draw a portrait of them in tears, lamentation, and sorrow. Such, indeed, are the transient passages of this short life, that one generally follows on the footsteps of the other. In Greece, we no sooner quit the jocund revels of the laughing meadows, but we encounter some dreary walk, planted on either side with the mournful cypress. It is, sometimes, even pleasant to repose under its gloomy shade.
Follow me into that house, says
Guys,
where the piercing cries of the slaves, and domestics, proclaim the approach of death! See'st thou not a woman; who, swooning, is supported in the arms of her attendants? She is a distracted mother, whose daughter has this instant given up the ghost. Her grief too mighty to be endured in silence, forces its way in loud exclamations. Her attendants answer with bitter sighs, and floods of tears. Hear her cries:
'O my child! my daughter! Thou who first gave me a right to the tender name of mother! Thou, who no sooner sawest the light, but, crying, I received thee into my arms; art now deaf to the cries of thy parent! These cries, shall pierce the very inmost recess of the tomb, where thou art going to descend; even the highest heaven shall hear them! It is thy mother calls. My child! My child did I say? My soul, my life; the prop of my existence! And, can'st thou abandon me thus? Has life forsaken thee in the strength of thy age, and in the flower of thy youth? No, thou only slumberest. A profound and tranquil sleep has seized thee. It is I who die; grief has robbed me of life. O sleep of death! Eternal sleep! Night more horrible than the close of creation! Thy shadows surround me; thou has ravished from me a daughter, who will never return! Let me follow her; re-unite me with all I held dear in the world! Barbarians, why do you interrupt me? Why do you prevent me? I go to seek my child; she is waiting for me. Hark! She calls! She is not dead; for pity's sake do not undeceive me! At least, I will embrace her cold-clay corse. Perhaps, the mother's touch may raise it again to action; renew the springs of life! —Oh heaven! no!—The cries of death, and the dismal echo of bewailings, too fatally pronounce my error. Now, now, they tear her from me.—Stop your your hands, barbarians.—I go.—Support me, my dearest child. I come, Thou draggest me with thee into the tomb of death!"
The afflicted mother, in this state of distraction, follows the funeral procession. The nearest relations and friends attend it, as heretofore; women and girls, with hair dishevelled, and weeping, follow. Being arrived at the place of interment, their tears then flow most copiously. This also agrees with the ancients, as related in the first scene of the Andrian.
The Greeks conform to the ancient custom of washing the body before interment; in which, they are followed by the Turks. They hire, as formerly, a certain number of women, who walk in procession before the body; tearing their hair, and singing the praises of the deceased. In
Euripides,
they will not believe the death of
Alceste;
because the proxy for the people, or the choir, says, "I see no water prepared to wash the body; no tearing of hair; neither do I hear the cries of women; circumstances which always make part of the funeral obsequies."
At present, when a death happens, the women of the house cry without ceasing; and, for a considerable time, refuse either nourishment or sleep. Formerly, the women expressed their grief on these occasions, by plucking off their hair, and rending their garments. The gentle
Hero,
perceiving the body of her dear
Leander,
floating at the break of day, upon the sea, begins to tear her vestments; and, with the most piercing cries, takes leave of the world. Then, plunging into the sea, she shares the fate of her beloved husband.
The myrmidons, and
Briseis
herself, tore off the hair, and covered the tomb of
Achilles
with it. The Greek women still act the same part; but this is now principally confined to hired mourners.
The Greeks formerly conceived, that injustice was done to the deceased, by keeping the body a long time, above ground. At present, interment follows the death with all possible expedition.
When a virgin dies, the body is dressed in the richest habits of the deceased; and the head crowned with flowers. The women throw roses, and scatter scented waters on the bier, as it passes along the streets.
Anciently, the corpse was decorated with several crowns of flowers, as marks of triumph; to shew, that the deceased had, at length, surmounted the miseries and vexation of life. For which reason, a corse was called,
estephanomenon, i. e.
"crowned." The survivors of the famous Greek soldiers, who served under
Xenophon,
in Asiatic Thrace; after having buried their deceased friends, erected a CENOTAPHIUM, and a grand funeral pile, on which they scattered crowns of flowers.
Xen. de Cyr. Exped.
l.vi. c. 5. In
Aristophanes,
a woman says, "Receive this crown from me. A second, and a third, let me present you with this.
Charon
waits for you." These crowns are described in the
bas reliefs
of
M. de Peysonnel,
as are also the nuptial crowns. In the collection of
Comte de Caylus,
is a similar
bas relief. Menius
lying dead, appears crowned by his son:
Neopolis,
his wife, who died some time before, also lies crowned by one of her relations.
We must not omit the funeral feasts.
Demosthenes,
in his harangue for
Ctesiphon,
where he so vain-gloriously boasts of being chosen in preference to
Eschines,
and other fountains of eloquence, to deliver the funeral oration, for those who were killed at the famous battle of Chaeronea, says, "Not to the public voice alone, am I obliged for my election to this honourable office. The parents and brothers of the deceased, whose duty it was to take charge of their funeral obsequies, joined their unanimous suffrages, that I should be appointed. Even the funeral repast, which our religion has enjoined, shall be conducted at the house of the deceased's nearest relation, was made under my roof. Upon whom, indeed, could their honours be so properly conferred, as upon him who had the care of their eternal fame."
The funeral feast is neglected by the modern Greeks. The nearest relation is charged with the preparation; and these terminate the funeral ceremony.
Parents, we have already remarked, always follow their children to the tomb. On such interesting occasions, the public expect to be witnesses of the pangs felt by an inconsiderable parent.
Sappho,
to express her sorrows in the absence of
Phaon,
tells us, she has pierced the air with her cries; and torn the hair from off her. To paint the excess of her grief in stronger colours, she compares herself to a mother, following the dismal procession of her child's funeral, overwhelmed with misery, and dissolving in tears.
In Greece, they mourn a considerable time for their children. The custom is very ancient in this country. Among numberless examples, one may suffice. And this
Eschines
has furnished us, in that speech, where he employs all his art to render
Demosthenes
obnoxious to the Athenians. "This wretch, speaking of
Demosthenes,
in less than seven days after the death of his daughter, and before he had paid one tribute of sorrow to her memory, or any of those duties, which nature and the laws of his country require, appeared publickly, crowned with flowers, and habited in the splendid dress of an assistant at a festival; thereby most scandalously violating every ordinance of the gods and men. Not even the remembrance of that precious gift, which the immortals had bestowed on him, and the only opportunity he ever enjoyed of being called, by the tender appellation of father, could restrain him from so gross an act of impiety. I speak not with a design to insult his misfortunes; but to make the world acquainted with his true character."
The learned notes of
M. Tourreuil,
who has translated this author, prove, by many quotations from the Greek writers, that parents always wore mourning on the death of their children.
Iphigenia,
preparing for the sacrifice, says in her prayer, "Do not after my death, either cut your hair, or assume the habit of mourning." She asks the same favour of her sisters.
Thus, to whatever side we turn our attention, we shall find, that this people resembled each other in all ages. The Greeks of the present age, are the Greeks of any past period. And yet this truth, says
Guys,
stands in need of new proofs, to undeceive those, who still think that merit is only to be found among the ancients.
The tombs of the Greeks, like those of the Turks, and other oriental nations, are situated on the high-roads leading into towns and villages. They are not surrounded with walls, but are, nevertheless, a sacred asylum for fugitives.
We have hitherto spoken of their customs, as meriting our attention from their antiquity; but, with respect to their tombs, we may observe, that if they are always out of their towns, it is because reason, and the natural order of things, has pointed out this as their proper situation, that the abode of the living might be distinguished from that of the dead. In Greece, the temple where the Eternal is adored, will never be found sullied, as with us, by the infection of dead bodies. The incense burnt in our churches, seems more properly applied to dissipate the pestiferous exhalations, which arise from putrefactions, than to the holy purposes of divine service. If some great men, as a token of peculiar benefits conferred by them upon mankind, have anciently received the honour of interment in cities; if the emperor
Constantine,
from a motive of piety, directed his body to remain after death, in the church of the holy apostles, which he himself founded; if, since that time, the same distinction has been granted to a few bishops, and other persons of exemplary life; if, indeed, the emperor
Leo,
granted permission to bury in churches; the practice has been so much abused in succeeding ages, that the continuance has been forbidden by several of the general synods or councils. Not merely to maintain the dignity of the church, but to guard the lives and health of its faithful children. This practice is now, however, pursued to a shameful excess, in Catholic, as well as Protestant countries. The ancient Greeks most scrupulously observed this wise law, which prohibited interment in their temples; or even within the walls of their cities. The marble, the ornaments, and the epitaphs on the tombs, distinguish the rank and occupation of the deceased. On the tomb of a sculptor, will be found a chissel; arms on that of a soldier; and so of the rest. This custom is of long standing among the Greeks.
"Meniskus,"
says
Sappho,
"decorated the tomb of
Pelagus
his son, who was a fisherman, with an oar and a net; instruments expressive of his dangerous and laborious calling."
Thus, the ghost of
Elpenor
says to
Ulysses;
"Erect a tomb to my memory, near the sea, that my disastrous fate may be made known to the traveller. Do not forget also, that an oar be engraved thereon, as a mark of my profession, and of the services I rendered you in my life-time.
Archimedes,
according to
Plutarch,
desired his relations to put no ornament on his tomb, but a cylinder and a sphere, which were to serve him likewise for an epitaph.
The modern Greeks still preserve that simplicity in their epitaphs, which was so characteristic of the ancient ones.
The Indian philosopher, who threw himself into the flames at Athens, in the presence of
Augustus,
and to the great astonishment of the Greeks, had no other epitaph on his tomb, than this simple inscription:
"Here are deposited, the ashes of
Zarmano Choegas,
an Indian of Bargosa; who, according to the custom of his country, encountered a voluntary death."
Most of the ancient inscriptions shew what respect the Greeks entertained for the ashes of the dead, and the tombs that enclosed them; we find an example of this at Thyatira; attested by
Smith, Spon, Wheeler,
and
Peysonnell.
"Fabius Sozimus,
caused this tomb to be erected near the consecrated olive-tree, which stands in the Chaldocian field, by the side of the great road, at the entrance of the city, for the reception of himself and his dear wife
Aureliana Pontiana,
and for them alone. Should any impious person dare to violate this foundation, he will not only incur a fine of thirteen hundred denarii of silver, but suffer the punishment assigned by the laws, to those sacrilegious felons, who disturb the ashes of the dead, to rob their tombs."
This species of robbery, was formerly very common. In the time of S.
Chrysostom,
the prisons were filled with malefactors, committed for that offence. The ancient Greeks forbad the interment of many persons in one tomb; except they were of the same family. The epitaphs which still remain, inform us, that penalties were affixed in cases of disobedience.
Though the magnificence of tombs is produced, in many instances, from the cultivation of vanity and riches; we shall find them oftener the recompense due to valour and merit; and in particular to those heroes, who have signalized themselves in the service of their country.
Cyrus,
bewailing the fall of
Abradatus,
to
Panthea,
promises, in order to console him, that he would erect a superb monument to the memory of their deceased friend.
Who can read, without emotion, the following inscription, upon an ancient tomb at Thebes?
"My father and mother honoured my corpse with their tears, performing, around my insensible tomb, the customary funeral rites; but, my soul is gone to the mansions of the just. My father was an Italian by birth, named
Adeus;
my own name
Nedymus;
and, without vanity it may be said, I died regretted of many. I lived only a few years, being born to enjoy but a short life, by the cruelty of an inconstant age. We must all submit to fate. Kings themselves are not exempt from its laws. My father
Zosimus,
who sighs incessantly after my immortal soul, caused this epitaph to be inscribed on my tomb."
The ancient epitaphs, frequently contained a short description of the personal beauties of the deceased. An instance of which, may be still seen at Athens, on the tomb of a young woman, called
Cilitia Charitopis,
who died in the flower of her life. "Her hair was of a light colour, her eyes soft and languishing, her complexion of snow, &c.
Exclusive of these tombs, they have small grave-stones; which anciently, as at present, served merely to acquaint the reader with the name of the person buried there.
"At Athens, says
Pausanias,
those brave citizens, who fell in the service of their country, were interred by the side of the road that leads to the academy. Their tombs are known by pillars set up for that purpose; whereon are marked, the names of the deceased, and the places of their nativity."
Can we turn our eyes towards those immense plains, once covered with flourishing cities; the seat of arts, the glory of the universe; but now strewed with the ruins of temples, and the dreary monuments, inclosing the remains of that great people; can we, I say, behold them without shedding a tear of regret, at the instability of human grandeur?
Life is held by the most brittle tenure; youth, full of liberty and dissipation, mispends the present hour, regardless of the future. Man arrives at maturity of judgment, but by slow degrees; and then the remaining part of life is too short, to make an advantageous use of the acquisition. The instant he comes to the perfection of his reason, his powers decline. For nature is always in motion, she must either advance or recede. In this position, all things are involved. Every being bears in its progress, the cause of its destruction. The fruits of the earth, having gained a a perfect maturity, begin to corrupt. The most stoical insensibility would be moved, at the sight of the devouring havock death has made in this country.
The tribute of a tear, to the remembrance of our departed friends, is justly their due. Faithful to this principle, the Greeks deplore, from time to time, the loss of those who have been dear to them in life; either by an affectionate sight, or a tender tear, vented on the tomb of the deceased. How different from the formal ceremony, observed by us, on such occasions; and that, by the injunction of our religion? But what surprize is there in our being so much estranged from nature; we, who reject with indignation, as gross and indelicate, every circumstance capable of exciting our natural sensibility.
During the time that the Greeks celebrate the festival of Easter, which is attended with great splendor, one day of that season, is also set apart, for a visit to the tombs; when they resort in great numbers, to bewail the loss of their friends and relations.
The Greek women of the present age, are satisfied with tearing some hair from their head and spreading it on the tomb. Formerly, their long and beautiful tresses, were always a devoted victim to their relations and friends. That beautiful ornament, the hair, of which the sex were so tenacious on all other occasions, was offered without reluctance at the tomb. They cut it off close to the head, and deposited it upon the monument.
"Here lie," says
Sappho,
"the ashes of the lovely
Timas;
who was snatched from the altar of
Hymen,
to inhabit the gloomy regions of
Proserpine.
Her companions lamented her death, with the usual demonstrations of sorrow. The fine sacrifice of beautiful hair, scattered about her monument, are precious tokens of their grief."
A sacrifice of this kind, considering the estimation in which the fine flowing tresses of hair were held by the Greeks, was no equivocal mark of tenderness and grief. O! charming prospect! says
Guys,
how many precious moments have I passed, in contemplating the tombs of Greece! Yes, my imagination has hovered over their whole extent, like those melancholy birds, that take so much delight in fluttering round them.
Yet do not imagine this view of mortality, among the scattered tombs, is altogether dismal and forlorn. The species of horror, such a spectacle impresses on an honest and gentle mind, is greatly alleviated by the variety of surrounding objects. Curiosity, and humanity, find a sweet satisfaction from the inscription; which give, as it were, language to the tombs; and where, too often, unfortunate mortals receive the first recompence of their virtues from society. Envy being silenced, the veil is then removed that kept merit and justice asunder. How much is it to be regretted, that artifice, lying, and hatred, should poison so many of the springs of life! On the tomb only, can we expect our virtues to be blazoned; and even then, we must stand indebted to the piety of our relations, or the fidelity of our friends, for this act of justice. An agreeable walk, is generally the avenue to these monuments; where our principal dwelling-place is already marked out. This scene, in some degree, unites us again to our friends; from whom, fate seemed to have for ever separated us. And, indeed, never fails to furnish very useful reflexions.
CHAP. XLII.
Of the Religion and Superstition of the Greeks.
THE whole Greek church, including every sect, is of considerable extent, containing not only the christians of the Turkish empire, who, in many parts, are more numerous than the Mahometans; but also the Muscovites, Russians, Cossacs, Ethiopians, Abyssinians, Circassians, Georgians, Mongrelians, and the inhabitants of the different islands in the Mediterranean and Archipelago. We shall here treat of those under the Turkish dominion, who are governed by four patriarchs; the chief of which resides at Constantinople; the second at Antioch; the third at Jerusalem; and the fourth at Alexandria. Though these four sees are independent of each other, that of Constantinople is considered as the principal, because it is under the eyes of the Ottoman court.
The investiture of it is generally given by the grand signior, or his vizier; notwithstanding this, the Greeks acknowledge it. This dignity, as we have already observed, in our account of Turkey, is sold to the highest bidder; and, after having obtained possession, he is not sure of retaining it long, if he cannot find means of furnishing considerable presents to the Turkish government. To be able to accomplish this, he draws as much money as he possibly can, from the clergy, and people belonging to his jurisdiction; He, likewise, endeavours to save enough to enable him, if disgraced, to lead a life of ease, indolence, and tranquility.
His jurisdiction is very great, and extends, not only over all the Turkish provinces in Europe, and the islands of the Archipelago, but likewise over most of the provinces in Asia Minor. In his letters missive, he stiles himself, by the mercy of God, archbishop of New Rome, Constantinople, and Oecumenical patriarch.
The patriarch of Antioch, has Syria, and Mesopotamia, under his jurisdiction; and stiles himself, by the mercy of God, patriarch of the great city of Antioch, and of all the East. His usual residence is Damascus.
The patriarch of Jerusalem, has Palestine, and part of Arabia, under his jurisdiction; and stiles himself a before, and patriarch of the holy city of Jerusalem, and all Palestine; sometimes he is stiled patriarch of Jerusalem, the holy Mount of Sion, Syria, Arabia beyond Jordan, Cana of Gallilee, and of all Palestine.
The patriarch of Alexandria, whose jurisdiction extends over Egypt, Lybia, and part of Egypt, stiles himself, by the mercy of God, pope and patriarch of the great city of Alexandria, and Oecumenical judge, sometimes Oecumenical patriarch; it having been the chief see before
Constantine,
and founded by St.
Mark;
from whence, Alexandria is frequently called the throne, or seat and chair of that apostle. His usual residence is Grand Cairo.
These three patriarchs are appointed by the Bashaws. The other sects of christians, have also their patriarchs; such as the Armenians, Maronites, Jacobins, &c.
The second rank in the hierarchy is occupied by the arch-bishops and bishops, under the inspection of their respective patriarchs. Though careless respecting religion, and dissolute in their private life, says
Mariti,
these prelates require, that those who either write or speak to them, should address them with the title of your holiness, and your blessedness. The first belongs to patriarchs, and the second to bishops. To add a lustre to their office, their menial servants are generally in deacon's orders.
They cannot be reproached, however, with neglecting their dioceses. They begin their visitation every twelfth-day, and do not disdain to enter even the poorest cottages. How noble these visits would be, did they not proceed from interested motives! The pontiff, in the name of Heaven, draws from the unhappy peasant, all his money; and leaves him nothing but a useless benediction. For this reason, while the rest of Europe complain they never see their bishops, the inhabitants in Turkey lament they see them too often.
The religious orders of S.
Basil,
S.
Elias,
and S.
Marcel,
have, from time immemorial, enjoyed the exclusive privilege of furnishing bishops and patriarchs. These monks make the same vows of poverty, fasting, obedience, and chastity, as those of Europe. They are forbidden by their regulations, to say mass; but, in order to become pontiffs, they forget this prohibition. And I could easily see, adds
Mariti,
they paid as little attention to their other vows.
I must, however, do them justice to say, that their whole lives are not spent in contemplative idleness. They cultivate their own lands, and exercise useful callings.
Confined to the most rigorous fasting, they live on pulse; and never eat fish, but on days of great solemnity. One may readily guess, that this austere life is not followed by their chiefs.
The latter are known by the title of
igumenos,
which answers to that of Abbé.
The first order among the Greeks, conferred upon those who devote themselves to the service of the church, is that of reader, called
anagnostis;
the only duty of which is, to read the sacred scriptures to the people, on festivals.
The next order is, that of the
psaltis,
or chanters; which conducts immediately to the deaconship, and sub-deaconship.
When a person is admitted into this second order, he is permitted to marry, but only once. The candidate must chuse for his spouse a chaste and beautiful virgin; and the reason the Greek canons give for this, is, that a minister who corresponds with angels, ought not to profane his flesh with vice and ugliness. The candidate has not the sole right to judge of these three points; he is obliged to conduct his young sweetheart to the bishop of the diocese, and ask him in a humble manner, if she appears to be chaste, beautiful, and a virgin. When the prelate really thinks her so, he smiles, kisses her cheek, and gives her his benediction. On the contrary, when he finds her disagreeable, his blessedness says to the candidate, "Return to the Holy Ghost; and by that it may enlighten thee."
A married priest, is forbidden to enter the bed of his spouse, the evening before he administers the sacrament; and the wife is forbidden to appear in church without a veil, left the sight of her charms should divert the attention of her husband from his duty.
The breviary of the Greeks is divided into seven parts; and the daily prayers would take up some several hours, were the whole recited, which is scarce ever done.
The churches are, as in Europe, divided into a nave and a choir. Old churches have a porch and a vestibule.
The church is surrounded with several rows of benches, as far as the entrance of the choir. These benches are pretty much like those in our churches; except that they are higher and narrower, and have no footboard, because the Greeks never kneel. They make devotion to consist in frequent salutations, and inflections of the body. Few sit down; as they prefer remaining, with their elbows leaning on the arms of their benches.
Custom has established it as a rule, that the women should be separated from the men. A barrier, in the form of an orchestra, is raised in the lower part of the church; behind which, the former are placed; and there are certain days in each month, on which they must not even pass the vestibule, or the first door of those churches, which have not a portico. They are forbidden likewise, on these days, to kiss the images of the saints.
The manner in which the Greeks make the sign of the cross, is not different from that of the Roman Catholics; except that they unite the thumb, and the middle fingers, in the form of a triangle, pressing the other two down to the palm of the hand.
Baptism is performed by immersion; and children are plunged three times into the water: it is customary to present them for baptism, the eighth day after their birth.
After baptism, the priest anoints the child's forehead, eyes, nostrils, mouth, ears, breast, hands, and feet, with holy unction, and immediately after gives it the sacrament.
Auricular confession is practised among the Greeks, and is become an object of great profit to the priests; as people do not receive absolution, unless they pay a certain sum, in proportion to the enormity of their transgressions. Should fate have condemned a person to absolute indigence, says
Mariti,
he can find no minister who will condescend to hear him. What then must those do, who, thinking confession necessary, possess no money? Prostrated on the steps of the church, they must beg the rich to give them a small alms, and thereby enable them to be delivered from their sins, and save their souls.
It is amusing to hear the Greek casuists. The following is a case of conscience; the solution of which may appear very singular. If a penitent accuses himself of having committed a theft, the confessor asks him, whether the person robbed, is a Greek or an European. In the first case he is absolved, upon making restitution; but in the second, he is considered as not having finned, by dividing the produce of the robbery with the confessor.
The sacrament costs a piastre, and holy unction the same. To procure a ready sale for the latter, the priests persuade the people, that the consecrated oil confers both health of body, and purity of soul.
Such of the assistants as wish to communicate, go and place themselves before the principal door of the sanctuary; and the priest, laying the book of the ritual upon the head of each communicant, presents them in their turn with the consecrated bread and wine.
There are reckoned to be four principal Lents in the Greek church, in the course of the year. The first precedes Easter, and continues two months. Milk and fish are allowed in the first week, but forbidden in the other seven. Certain kinds of fish, such as oysters, and some other shell-fish, are excepted from this prohibition. The law, which forbids fish only, because they contain blood, considering these as not possessed of any.
In the second Lent, which is forty days before the nativity of Christ, fish of every kind is allowed.
The third Lent begins on Whit-Monday, and ends on St.
Peter
's day. It was instituted in memory of the apostles; and its duration depends on the advancement, or retardation of Easter. During this Lent, milk is permitted.
The last is solely intended in honour of the
Virgin Mary.
It begins on the first day of August, and ends on the day of assumption. This Lent is observed with more strictness, than any of the rest, on account of the great respect entertained for the mother of Christ.
Old men, children, women with child, and even the sick, are not exempted from observing these four Lents; and so great is the superstition of the Greeks, that they think it less heinous to rob, prostitute themselves publicly, or even to commit murder, than to transgress their precepts for fasting.
The modern Greeks hold seven sacraments. Baptism, unction, the eucharist, penance, holy orders, marriage, and prayer.
The laity are enjoined to receive the communion four times every year; and this is never omitted, at least twice a year; namely, at Christmas and Easter. It is received fasting, at the third hour of the day, or about nine in the morning. The communicants take it standing, and bending at the same time, their bodies, but they never kneel. That those who are sick or dying, may not want this comfortable viaticum; a sufficient quantity of bread is consecrated on Holy Thursday; which being dried over a chafing dish, is put into a box of silver, or wood; and, being inclosed in a silk case, is hung up behind the altar, with a lamp or two burning before it. If the priests have occasion to make use of it, they moisten it with wine, before they carry it to the house of the sick communicant.
Every person is obliged to confess four times a year, except the poor; of whom it is required, only once in Lent. From very devout people, a monthly confession is expected. If a person dies before he has received absolution, he is considered to be in a desperate state; but should he die excommunicated, his corpse is supposed to feel the dismal effects of it in the grave; and that it will grow hard, and swell like a drum, while the sentence of excommunication is in force; this, the Greeks say, is occasioned by the devils entering into it. The bishops, when they prohibit any thing in their briefs, particularly threaten the offenders, that after death they shall swell, and be undissolved; but, when the excommunication is taken off, then the body will dissolve and return to dust.
The ceremony of anointing the sick with oil, is another of their sacraments, and similar to that of extreme unction with the Roman Catholics.
How shall I describe to you, says
Guys,
the religion of this people? It has, no doubt, experienced the same revolutions with the Greek empire. Like every thing else in this nation, we find it obscured with the darkest ignorance, and the grossest superstition. The Greek religion has retained no part of its original institution; except the ceremonies, ornaments, and solemnities, serving as signs by which it may be known.
The religion of a people, conducted by the most illiterate priests, who scarcely know how to read, at best, can only be expected to preserve the exterior form and likeness, of what it originally was. Thus, the glorious light which once shone upon this people, and dissipated the darkness of paganism, and its absurd tenets, is dwindled into a glimmering resemblance of its former splendor.
The ignorance of the clergy, necessarily includes that of the nation. The gaudy trappings of their priests; the festivals and ceremonies, with a few ornaments for the monasteries and altars, are all that remain to the poor captured Greeks; the Turks, indeed, have continued the use of their churches; and beyond these they have no religion. This nation, the parent of Polytheism, fraught with the pagan principles of the ancient Greeks, continued even in the first ages of christianity, to multiply the objects of devotion; though they had the happiness of knowing the true God. Abandoned formerly, to the opinions and errors of their philosophers, they had found in the gospel, and in christian morality, what philosophy had in vain attempted to unfold. Human curiosity, ill satisfied with the lights of faith, which would subdue reason, and the pride of mortal judgment, endeavoured to assimilate with christianity, the ancient doctrine of the two principles of a good and evil genius; errors to which the Greeks had been invariably attached. From hence, innumerable heresies, and a multitude of sects, have been engendered in the bosom of the Greek church; which still continues to be the nurse of error and falshood.
The history of the emperors, who, from the time of
Constantine,
until the separation between the Greek and Latin churches, were oftener engaged in theological disputes, than in managing the political concerns of the empire, may be more properly called, the history of commotions and civil wars, on account of religion. At length, the Greek clergy, educated in the principles of eternal controversy, were silenced by the last conqueror of Greece.
Mahomet
II. contented himself with naming a patriarch, and graciously left the free exercise of their religion to this poor, undone, subdued people; which put an end to those disputes, so repugnant to the military fanaticism of the Turks; for
Mahomet,
the prophet, an absolute despot, who pretended to be inspired, having established his religion by force of arms, ordered every one to believe, and would have no arguments.
Under such masters, how could the Monks, and Greek priests, ever trembling, and having no longer opportunities to exercise themselves in disputation, cultivate theology and letters. We may from thence conclude, that the modern Greeks having no fit pastors to guide them in their religion, have added to that which they profess, all the traditions and practices which credulity and custom could preserve; and, by their attachment to ancient usages, have retained innumerable superstitions. In a word, these people are credulous in proportion to their ignorance: thus we find them, excessively attached to prodigies, auguries, omens, and dreams; as they are also constant observers of fasts, and other customs derived from their ancestors.
The Greek religion is now become that of the Russian. The latter, towards the end of the tenth century, received a metropolitan into their kingdom, who was sent by the patriarch of Constantinople, to baptize and instruct them. In process of time, that patriarch became supreme of the Russian church; but in the year 1667, the Russians shook off their dependance on the Greek hierarchy; without introducing the least innovation in its doctrine. Thus, the Greeks and Russians profess the same religion; and the priests of both nations are habited alike; but these are the only particulars they hold in common with each other.
Austere and frequent fasts, the customs of public prayer, and of assembling in church before sun-rise; the dread of being excommunicated, and of an exclusion from the assembly of the faithful; in short, the greatest respect for their patriarch and the bishops, are usages which the Greeks have retained from the primitive Christians.
But to go still further back, we must examine the religious festivals, which they celebrate in the country villages; they will call to mind the bacchanals, and the devotion of the ancients, for a sacred fountain, or an ancient forest; which were, with them, objects of veneration and worship.
The Greeks have still their venerable caverns, and their consecrated waters. They go in crouds, on certain days of the year, and drink of them; and these days have the honour of being numbered among their religious festivals. The borders of these fountains are ornamented with little pieces of linen or stuff, as trophies of the virtues of the spring, in having restored so many to health. They observe the same method of returning thanks to the saint they chanced to invoke, in any calamity or disorder; and, if the event proves propitious, an offering is made of a bit of stuff, or some little trinket, affixed to the images. The credulity of the ancient Greeks, and of the heathens in general, with respect to all sorts of presages, is well known. The oracles, those lying instruments, were not sufficient for their purpose. They had recourse to fate, to divination, and to fortuitous expressions; to all of which they yielded the most implicit faith. The Greeks still draw presages from a thousand incidents, which happen accidentally. Thus, a taper or candle, which chances to emit a spark, announces the arrival of some person they expected.
Chance expressions, and particularly those of infants, had the force of an oracle with the ancients. The epigram of
Callimachus,
on this subject, is much admired. "A stranger, says he, consulted the sage
Pittacus,
of Mitylene; which, of two young women who were offered him in marriage, he should take for a wife. The estate and rank of the first, were suitable to his own; but the other was much his superior in both.
Pittacus,
instead of answering the question himself, pointed out with a stick, to some children who were whipping their tops in the public square, and bid him take his answer from them, which would clear up his doubts." The stranger approaching, hears them call out to each other—take your equal.—These words were sufficient, he sought no other oracle, but took the woman, whose circumstances assimilated the nearest to his own, and was happy.—Profit by the example, says the poet, and marry with your equal. This tract, which paints in such strong colours, the sweetness and simplicity of the ancients, is really interesting.
The Greeks have also their good and evil days. The fortieth day is sacred to lying-in women; who never go out before the expiration of that term. Anciently, it was celebrated by them as a festival; and, before the arrival of this period, the women were not allowed to enter into the temple; and even now, a certain time must elapse before they are admitted into it.
Their attachment to superstitious and vulgar prejudices is not weakened, we may be certain, by long custom. Few nations have any good reasons to offer in justification of their particular habits; precedent and usage is the only answer they have to give. A detail of all the superstitious practices of the Greeks, would be enormously voluminous, and consequently tiresome. We shall mention those only, which are their present characteristics.
The ancient superstitions are described by
Theophrastus;
the modern Greeks have rather augmented, than diminished their number.
S.
Chrysostom
relates the bigotry of his own times, which still remains to the present age. "Nothing can equal, says this author, the women in these particulars, with respect to their young children. The instant one is brought into the world, all the lamps of the house are lighted; and the infant is called by the name of some person who has lived to a great age, to procure long life for it. They tie threads of scarlet about their hands, to preserve them from accidents. The women-nurses, and sometimes the slaves, go and put their fingers into a kind of clay, which is found at the bottom of the baths; with which they mark the forehead of the child, in order to avert from it the evil sight, or envy. Some write on the hands of the child, the names of rivers and streams; while others make use of ashes, tallow, and salt, for the like purpose." All this is done to avert the evil sight which they dread to this day.
A quick imagination, easily inflamed and nursed in a system of vulgar errors and fables, that exaggerate every thing, cannot but be susceptible of the slightest impressions. "Accordingly, adds the same reverend father, their souls are always occupied by the most terrible apprehensions. Going out this morning, says one, such an accident happened which portends the most grievous misfortunes. My rogue of a valet, says another, on presenting me my shoes, gave me that for the left foot first, a sure sign I shall sustain a loss, or an affront. A third informs you, that he came out with the left leg foremost, an infallible token of mischief."
The modern Greeks, are subject to the same weaknesses, the same fears, the same credulity. In studying a nation, in following the people step by step, we find in all climates, that they exactly resemble those who went before them. What we say of individuals, is true of whole nations.
Nothing more strongly characterizes the credulity of a people, than the faith they place in dreams, and their manner of interpreting them.
Pliny
's astonishment, at the credulity of the Greeks, was very natural. Religion has destroyed the famous oracles of Greece; but reason has not done her part, in assisting to diminish the credit given by the Greeks to dreams. Ancient authors, of the greatest reputation, have treated them in the most serious manner; while the lively imagination of the poets, who, like lovers, are the creators of their own fancies, have not given them such a favourable reception in their minds. If some of the great writers of antiquity have joined in a belief of the efficacy of dreams; others, of no less authority, have rejected them, as delusive imaginations of the brain, signifying nothing.
Plutarch,
as assiduous in relating the dreams, as the
bon mots
of the great men, whose lives he writ, says, that
Sylla,
in his writings, asserts, nothing was more certain than the intelligence given to mankind in their dreams.
Augustus,
in consequence of a particular dream imposed upon himself, the ridiculous and superstitious drudgery, to assume, on a certain day of the year, the character of a mendicant, holding forth his hand to receive alms from the passers by. Whence comes it, so much weakness should reside in a soul of such superior nature?
The famous dream of
Cicero
in his exile, which announced to him a speedy and glorious return, though it was verified in every particular, did not alter the sentiments of that great man respecting dreams. He was of opinion, they were not deserving credit, because one, among numbers, should be realized, any more than that a notorious lyar should be believed who had spoken truth.
The attachment of the ancients, to this species of superstition, was almost general among the people. A set of gods were established, whom they worshipped under the title of
Dii somniales.
The modern Greeks, have also certain rules and methods for interpreting dreams; which, no doubt, came to them from the ancients. There are numbers of old women, who procure the means of subsistence, in exercising this mystery. I made a point, says
Guys,
of visiting some of the profession, in order to be acquainted with their method; a single example of which, will be sufficient to elucidate it.
A young Greek, applying to one of these oracles, said, "I dreamt a stranger came to me, and presented me an aigrette with several flowers; after lighting a slambeau, he disappeared." Here is the whole of the mystery, said the old Sibyl, whom she consulted. The aigrette, signifies you shall be married; the lighted flambeau indicates, that the time is near; and the number of flowers, mark the number of children that you will have." Thus spake the oracle. I desired no more, says
Guys,
nor did I ever take the trouble to enquire into the verification of his prophecies. In general, the rule is to interpret the dreams upon a contrary footing. These sinister accidents indicate good fortune; while the day, which succeeds a pleasant dream, is a day of sorrow to the person who has dreamt it.
The Greeks, in order to obtain propitious dreams, prepare themselves, as formerly, by fasts. A young maid, tempted by an ardent and impatient desire, to know her destiny by marriage, will not eat of any thing on the evening she proposes to make the essay, except a piece of dirty cake; which, however, she must not accompany with any kind of liquor, left the charm should be interrupted: she then takes three clews of thread, of different colours; white, red, and black, which she places under her pillow. After this preparatory arrangement, the man who first appears to her, and presents her something to drink, is to be her husband. When she wakes, she is to take one of the threads promiscuously from under her pillow. The black, prognosticates her lot to be cast for a widower; the white, signifies an old man; but the red, denotes a young and rich husband, or one according to her wishes. We should not engage the attention of our readers with such puerile relations, but that it is impossible to study mankind to any advantage, without descending into their minute absurdities, as well as criticising their glaring follies. The present race of men, who arrogantly boast their superiority over former times, are they more exempt from such weaknesses, than those ages they contemn?
CHAP. XLIII.
Commerce and Navigation.
THE Greeks, who received their sciences, arts, fables, and romances from Egypt, imbibed also, from the Egyptians, their inclination for maritime commerce. In ancient histories of Greece, we find the names of very great personages of antiquity, enrolled among the sons of commerce. The sage
Thales, Plato, Hippocrates,
and the legislator
Solon,
had all been merchants.
Zeno,
chief of the stoics, was the son of a Cyprian merchant.
Sappho
also, the sister of
Charaxus,
a dealer in wine. A travelling merchant first discovered the value of
Homer
's poems, and took the pains to collect them. In a word,
Hesiod
himself gives lessons to his brother, on the article of commerce.
The custom of merchants, assembling in some public place for the purposes of traffic, is of very ancient date in Greece. This we learn in
Herodotus,
from the answer of
Cyrus
to the threat of the ambassadors from Sparta. "I never, says he, entertain the least dread of those men, who have a place in this city, where they assemble to deceive each other, by the grossest perjuries." These words, says the same author, alluded generally to the Greeks. For every city in Greece, had some place appropriated to the purpose mentioned by
Cyrus.
What
Cyrus
insinuates, concerning the perjuries of the merchants, refers to the ancient method of making bargains, or contracts. A practice still in use among the Greeks. As soon as the buyer and seller come to an agreement, the manager, or broker, joins their hands; which is of the same efficacy with an oath in binding the bargain. In conformity to this practice, we find engraven on the ancient monuments, and particularly on the intaglios, two hands united; which were, no doubt, designed as the emblem of commerce.
This custom is not confined to the Greeks. We find it prevail in all nations, where any traces remain of the plain dealing and honesty of the ancients.
The Greeks still entertain a strong propensity to commerce. The poorest cruise from one island to another; whilst those of more extensive capitals, enlarge the bounds of their commerce to Egypt, and the Black sea. Some of the great merchants trade to the East-Indies, by way of Bassora; and bring from thence callicoes, and stuffs of various kinds. Others hold a correspondence with Russia, for skins, furs, &c. The Greeks, like the Ragusans, having no inclination for extravagance, live at a very small expence, as the most certain means of gain. Those who cannot find an encouragement at home, seek an establishment in Holland or Venice.
They are not only good merchants, but excellent artificers. They have established several manufactories at Scio; where stuffs are made, exactly resembling those of India, Persia, and even of Lyons. Besides these articles furnished at Scio, they make carpets of a very superb quality at Salonica and Smyrna. Cyprus is famous for coverlets; as Candia is for soap and oil. Santorin produces a kind of cotton stuff, called dimity; and at Tinde they make silk stockings. In the days of ancient Greece, Samos and Miletus bore the reputation of excelling in carpets; Corinth in coverlets; Sicily in cheese; and Argos produced the best of metals.
The Greeks were early acquainted with the art of navigation, which may be gathered from the number of vessels they fitted out for the expedition against Troy. The passage from island to island, in the Archipelago, and again to the adjacent continents, was not very difficult, by reason of the vicinity of those places. Commerce was then carried on, by barter of one commodity for another. The merchants who furnished the Greeks with wine from Lemnos, during the siege of Troy; received in return, brass, iron, skins, &c.
Thieving was no crime among the ancient Greeks, but a calling of ingenuity and industry. Being held in no disgrace, the earliest navigators became thieves of the first rank, under the denomination of pirates. The uncivilized Greeks of the present age, who have preserved the simplicity of the ancient manners, are now the pirates of the Archipelago. In consulting
Homer,
upon the customs of the primitive Greeks, we have the purest source of knowledge, on that head, ever before us.
Ulysses
having touched at the island of Pheacia,
Euryalus
was desirous of provoking him to enter the lists with him, either in the skilful management of the lute, or the swiftness of course. But
Ulysses
declining to engage in either, the young
Euryalus,
who was hot and passionate, made use of these rough expressions: "Am I then to consider you as one of those ship-masters, who pass their lives in going from place to place, to traffic or plunder; or in the still more despicable light of the purser of a vessel; one who keeps a register of stores and prizes."
The Greeks are, in some measure, seamen by nature. The Turkish ships of war are manned with them. They make use of the compass, but have no charts to direct them; and are, therefore, obliged to trust to their knowledge of the coasts, for the safety of their navigation. They, of course, never venture far from the land. Most of their ships resemble those of the ancients; having but one mast, which is crossed with very long yards. They have also great sails, and a high flat poop, sometimes ornamented; the prow projecting like that of
Theseus
's ship. A Greek may frequently be seen seated on the poop of his
volik,
sailing on that beautiful canal the Black Sea; the coasts resounding with his lyre; while a favourable wind swelling the sails, wafts him along the water with a pleasing rapidity.
Fishing, which was the prelude, and, if we may be allowed the expression, the parent of navigation has not been neglected by the Greeks. One of the finest poems, that ever was handed down to us from the Greeks, was written by
Oppian,
in celebration of the art of fishing. A poem, in so much esteem in the age that produced it, as to obtain the appellation of golden verses.
Whole nations have followed the art of fishing, as their only means of support; while others have derived their whole subsistence from the pursuit of terrestrial animals. The latter being the most healthful and agreeable exercise, and the success attended with greater
eclat,
has been in all ages, the principal diversion of youth, and favourite sport of princes and heroes. While, on the other hand, fishing has been the occupation of the meaner sort of people, and attended with greater danger. The Greek fishermen, described in the history of former times, or on the monuments of antiquity, are exactly represented by those of the present age; who are provided with the same kind of implements as their predecessors. Being in general, more skilful and industrious in their profession, than their neighbours; they are also more successful. Of the industry of the fishermen of antiquity,
Strabo
relates the following anecdote.
A celebrated musician, employing his talents one day in the streets of Jassus, the inhabitants of which were, for the most part, fishermen, drew about him a great number of people. But the signal being presently given for opening the fish-market, his whole audience forsook him except one man, who happened to be a little deaf. The musician, unacquainted with that circumstance, was highly flattered by his attention; felicitated the man on his taste for music; and praised him much, for the regard he had shewn to a piece, which, as the musician said, had great merit. A circumstance the more remarkable in the fisher, considering what an universal depravity of taste appeared in his fellow-citizens, by quitting his music at the first sound of a bell, to sell their fish. "How," replies the supposed man of taste; "is the signal given? I did not hear it." And instantly followed his brother fishermen with equal precipitation.
Homer,
who was the first to lay all nature under contribution, in order to furnish that crowd of images which are dispersed over his works, did not forget the fishers. Describing the defeat of
Penelope
's suitors, he represents them after the combat, "scattered on the ground, and panting for breath; like fishes taken from the net, just thrown upon the shore. Laid in heaps on the dry sand," says
Homer,
"the finney race thirst for the moist element, which they so long enjoyed. They palpitate in every part, from the heat and avidity of the air, just ready to destroy them. Thus fell the lovers of
Penelope.
Thus they found one common grave."
Homer
then mentions fishing with nets; which practice was very ancient in Greece, and in Egypt. But the Greeks, according to
Athenaeus,
existed some time before they could eat fish. And
Dacier
observes, that at the siege of Troy, warriors abstained from the use of fish; as food of too delicate a nature, for men of that profession.
Menelaus,
in the Odyssey, excuses his companions, who remained with him in the island of Pharos, for having fished with a line; by observing, that hunger had carried them to such lengths, they were glad to eat whatever they could get.
After the Greeks had adopted the art of fishing, they brought it to the greatest perfection.
Pollux
has been more particular, than even
Theocritus,
in describing every utensil necessary for carrying on this employment. It is to them we owe the origin of the
Xiphias,
or sword-fish, carried on by the people of Marseilles; of the pilchard fishery, and that of the tunny. This latter fish appeared formerly in sholes, and were esteemed the best and largest fish of the sea. A company of them, according to
Pliny,
once pursued the ships of
Alexander;
his whole sleet was seized with terror, and formed themselves into a line, as if attacked by an enemy. This fish was in great estimation among the ancients, as now with the moderns. They were served at the best tables; and the Romans, like ourselves, greatly esteemed the flavour. According to
Aulus Gellius,
our pickled tunny, and botargo, are more ancient than we imagine. The Carthaginians always provided the tunny-fish to be served at weddings; and it had constantly a place in the Grecian banquets, before the new-married couple were put to bed.
The tunny-fish still continue to pass through the straits of Gibraltar, in large companies, about the commencement of spring. There is a great fishery of them, as we have before remarked, near Cadiz, at a village called Conil; from which place, and its environs, the duke of
Medina Sidonia,
is said to draw the clear sum of eighty thousand ducats yearly.
At Salines, a port in Naxios, an island of the Archipelago, the Greeks have a great fishery for eels and mullet, by the means of snares made of reeds, and manufactured into a certain form. These snares are very pliable, and so disposed, that the fish once lodged in them cannot get out.
The sturgeon-fishing is also carried on in a very singular manner. An inclosure of willows with a door, being placed in the water, is so contrived, to admit all the fish which come that way, without the possibility of their getting out again.
Tunny fishing is carried on, by the people of Marseilles, in great perfection, after a manner which they inherit from the Greeks. The fish are detained by an inclosure placed in the water, much resembling the folds used for inclosing cattle in the middle of a field.
END OF VOL. XIII.