PERSIA.
From SIR JOHN CHARDIN, who was there in the laſt Century; ELTON, who travelled through the Northern Provinces, in 1739; JONAS HANWAY, who did the ſame in 1744; and WILLIAM FRANKLIN, who reſided eight months at SHI⯑RAUZ, in 1786 and 1787.
CHAP. III. Continued.
THE baths in Perſia are very commodious, and well worth the attention of a ſtranger. They conſiſt gene⯑rally of two large apartments, one of which furniſhes a place for undreſſing, the other is the bath. On the ſide of the firſt are ſtone benches, raiſed two feet from the ground, covered with mats and carpets, where the bathers ſit to undreſs, and thence they proceed to the bath, through a long, narrow paſſage. The bath is a large room, of an octagon form, with a cupola at top, through which the light and air are admitted. On the ſides of this room [4] are ſmall platforms of wood, raiſed about a foot from the ground, on which the people, who enter to bathe, per⯑form their devotions, a ceremony the Perſians always previouſly obſerve. At the upper-end of the room is a large baſon, or reſervoir of water, built of ſtone, well-heated by means of ſtoves, made at the bottom, with iron gratings over them; and adjoining is another of cold water, of either of which the bather has his choice. In the morning, before day, a ſervant goes to the terrace, on the top of the houſe, and ſounds a ſhell, or horn, to give notice that the bath is ready. When any perſon comes to bathe, he undreſſes himſelf in the front room, as was ſaid, ties a cloth about his middle, which reaches down to his knees, and proceeds to the ſtove. When he comes out of the hot bath, which is generally in the ſpace of ten or twelve minutes, the people of the houſe ſtand ready to perform the operation of rubbing, and, to effect this, he is laid on his back, at full length, with a pillow to ſupport his head; a bruſh made of camel's hair is then uſed, which completely cleans the body. After ſome time rubbing, they rinſe the whole body with ſeveral baſons of warm water, and the per⯑ſon is reconducted to the dreſſing-room, where he ſhifts, and dreſſes at leiſure, receiving a calean to ſmoke.
Chardin ſays, that the ſervants of the bath rub the bather from head to foot, in ſo rough a manner, that thoſe, who are not uſed to it, think he is about to flea them. Afterwards he ſhaves the perſon's head and face, [5] if he deſires it, cuts his finger and toe-nails, handles his body, ſqueezes and rubs it, and ſtretches every finger and limb, as if he was about to diſlocate them, and this takes up a quarter of an hour. After the perſon has been thus ſtretched and ſqueezed, he plunges into the bath again, and, being wiped dry, returns to the dreſſing-room, and puts on his cloaths. The time for the men's bathing is from day-break to four in the afternoon, and that for the women, from four till midnight. When it is the women's turn to bathe, the male ſervants of the bagnio withdraw, and are ſucceeded by girls. The ladies are never ſo finely dreſſed as when they come to bathe. This is the only opportunity they have of vying with each other in the article of cloaths; and their per⯑fumes and eſſences are enough to ſtifle one who is not uſed to them.
Great men have bagnios in their own houſes; and thoſe of a lower rank have them adjoining to their houſes, reſerve them to themſelves at certain times, but let them out to others, on condition only of keeping a conſtant fire, with veſſels and other implements ne⯑ceſſary for bathing.
The Perſians are much more ſcrupulous than any other eaſtern nation, in permitting foreigners to go into their baths, which, if attempted without their knowledge, they prevent, alledging, in excuſe, that if it was known that they admitted a Ferengy (this is the word they expreſs [6] chriſtians by) they ſhould loſe both their cuſtom and reputation, as the bath would be thereby deemed polluted.
During the ſpring, the baths are dreſſed out in great finery, a cuſtom diſtinguiſhed by the natives under the name of Gul Reàzee, or the ſcattering of roſes, from the vaſt quantity of thoſe flowers ſtrewed in the apartments. This ceremony continues a week, or ten days, during which time, the gueſts are entertained with muſic, dancing, coffee, ſherbet, &c. and the dreſſing-room is decked out with paintings, looking-glaſſes, ſtreamers, and other ornaments, at the expence of the maſter of the humaùm, or hummum, as we call it, who compliments his cuſtomers on the occaſion, though a ſmall preſent is made by them to the muſicians. In Shirauz the baths are uſed alternately by men and women, every other day.
In the centre of the city of Shirauz is a large building, called by the Perſians Shàh Cheraùg, or the King's lamp, and is conſidered as a place of the greateſt ſanctity, being the mauſoleum of the mother of one of their Imaums, or heads of the faith: it is a place of high antiquity, but the exact date of its foundation cannot be aſcertained. The tomb of the celebrated and deſervedly admired Hafiz, one of the moſt famous of the Perſian poets, ſtands about two miles from Shirauz. Here govern⯑ment has erected a moſt elegant aivan, or hall, with apartments adjoining. No coſt has been ſpared to ren⯑der [7] it agreeable. It ſtands in the middle of a large gar⯑den. In the front of the apartments is a ſtone reſervoir, with a fountain in the centre. In the garden are many cypreſs trees, of extraordinary ſize and beauty, as well as of great antiquity. Under the ſhade of theſe trees is the tomb of Hafiz, of fine white marble, from Tauris, eight feet long, and broad, covering the original tomb. On the top and ſides are ſelect pieces from the poet's own works, moſt beautifully cut in the Perſian Nuſtaleek character. During the ſpring and ſummer ſeaſon, the inhabitants viſit this ſpot, and amuſe themſelves with ſmoaking, playing at cheſs, and other games, reading alſo the works of Hafiz, whom they eſteem more than any of their poets, and whom they venerate almoſt to adoration, never ſpeaking of him, but in the higheſt terms of rapture and enthuſiaſm. A moſt elegant copy of his works is kept upon the tomb, for the purpoſe and inſpection of all who go there. The principal youth of the city aſſemble here, and ſhew every poſſible mark of reſpect for their favourite poet, making plentiful libations of the delicious wine of Shirauz to his memory.
Sadi's tomb, another of their famous poets, who flouriſhed about five hundred and fifty years ago, is alſo in being, though out of repair. It is ſituated at the foot of the mountains that border the plain, or valley, of Shirauz. It is a large ſquare building, at the upper-end of which are two alcoves, or receſſes in the wall. [8] That on the right is the tomb of Sadi, juſt in the ſtate it was in, when he was buried, built of ſtone, ſix feet long, and two and a half broad. On the ſides are en⯑graved many ſentences in the old Nuſkhi character, relating to the poet and his works. On the tomb is placed, for the inſpection of all who viſit it, a manuſcript copy of his works, moſt elegantly tranſcribed. And this place the people of Shirauz viſit occaſionally, as they do the tomb of Hafiz.
Not far from Hafiz's tomb, is a magnificent building, called Heft Tun, or ſeven bodies, erected in commemo⯑ration of ſeven derviſes, who came from a great diſtance, to reſide in this country, and took up their abode on this ſpot, and there continued till they all died, each burying the other ſucceſſively, until the only ſurvivor was buried there by the neighbours. This hall is lined one third of the height with white Tauris marble, and the cieling ornamented with blue and gold enamel. It has ſome tolerable paintings executed in the Perſian ſtyle, amongſt which, is one of Abraham's offering up his ſon Iſaac, and another of Moſes, when a boy, tending the flocks of his father-in-law, Jethro. Over the doors are the portraits of the two celebrated poets Hafiz and Sadi, at full length; that of Hafiz habited in the old Perſian dreſs, painted with a roſy complexion, and a large pair of whiſkers, apparently about thirty-ſix years old. Sadi is the figure of a venerable old man, with a long beard, turned white with age, in a religious dreſs, with long [9] flowing robes, holding a ſmall crook, or ivory ſtaff in his right hand, and a charger of incenſe in the other.
Derbend is the capital of Shirvan, and ſituated in 42 degrees of north latitude; it is a city of great antiquity, and the only place now ſtanding on the ſhores of the Caſpian ſea, which has any thing to boaſt of. It ſeems to be admitted, that the greateſt part of it was built by Alexander the Great. Derbend has often changed its maſters, having been ſeveral times in the hands of the Turks. The Tartars are ſaid to have had poſſeſſion of it. The Ruſſians kept poſſeſſion of it for ſeveral years during this century, but it is now again in poſſeſſion of the Perſians. It is about three Engliſh miles long, but not more than half a mile broad, extending from the verge of the ſhore due weſt, up to the foot of a lofty mountain, the whole in a declivity, and its natural ſituati⯑on, is ſuch, as to form in ſtrict propriety, the gates of Perſia, on this ſide; for there is no paſſage to the weſtward, without going deep into the mountains, which are guarded by their proper inhabitants, who have not ſub⯑mitted to the Perſian yoke. Here is a citadel (with a governor) that mounts 40 pieces of cannon. This city is divided into three parts, each part having its diſtinct wall; the upper town, which is half a mile ſquare, conſtitutes the citadel; and no perſon can enter it, but the ſoldiers of the garriſon.
[10]The walls of the middle town are about 30 feet high, 20 feet thick at the baſe, and from 12 to 15 at top, having a breaſt-work, with port-holes three feet thick. It is defended alſo by about ſix flanking baſtions. The walls are of a ſhelly ſtone, ſtrongly ce⯑mented. How nature has produced theſe, or whether they have remained ſince the deluge, muſt be left to the curious to determine; we can only obſerve, that ſuch ſhells do not appear on any of the Caſpian ſhores. The rocks about the town are of the ſame compoſition.
The city gates are very ſtrong, and well made arches, with ſliding holes to ſhoot arrows, or throw down ſtones, from. The ſtreets are not regular, nor were they paved in 1746, though they had been ſo formerly. It was in this year that the Ruſſian ambaſſador made his entry into Perſia; and Mr. Van Mierop, who accompanied him, tells us, that though many of the houſes are ſup⯑ported on one ſide by the hills, numbers were fallen down, and the greateſt part in ruins. It is hardly poſ⯑ſible to deſcribe the miſeries which this place ſuffered about four years before, when Nadir Shah, the Perſian King, came in perſon againſt the Leſgee Tartars. We ſaw a ſpecimen of it, ſays he, by the carcaſes of horſes and other animals, which was ſuffered to remain in the ſtreets, and ruined houſes. We found in this town near 500 men whoſe eyes Nadir Shah had cauſed to be put out at one time. Here is a very mag⯑nificent moſque, whoſe roof is ſupported by 84 [11] arches, Nadir converted it into a barn, and we rode into it, without giving offence. Here are alſo ſeveral cara⯑vanſeras belonging to the Armenians.
The eaſtermoſt part of the lower town is waſhed by the ſea; the walls are guarded by two round baſtions, without which was formerly a harbour for ſmall veſſels. Nadir built a palace here; cauſed ſeveral ſtreets, or houſes to be erected, and made it a free port, with a view of eſtabliſhing a great commerce, but it came to nothing, and this part of the town is uninhabited.
On the ſouth ſide of Derbend are many vineyards and gardens, for an extent of eight miles; but theſe, as well as their arable lands have partaken the common fate of war. As the neighbourhood of this city is the country of the Leſgee Tartars, and as we had not an opportunity of ſpeaking of them, when deſcribing the vaſt extent of Tartary, the reader will doubtleſs not be diſpleaſed at having here ſome little account of them, particularly, as it will relieve him from a continued dry deſcription of towns and places.
Theſe Tartars are known to be ſome of the braveſt people in the world. Their country extends ſouth from near the latitude of Tarku, about 40 leagues, and 25 weſtward. They are under different chiefs, who in caſe of danger to their own common liberty, unite their forces. Some few have been ſubjected to the Perſians; but thoſe to the north [12] and weſt of the Perſian dominions, have never ſubmitted. They are able to bring 30 or 40,000 men into the field. They have had frequent wars with the Perſians; and, laſtly, with Nadir Shah, who with 15,000 men pur⯑ſued a great body of them into the hills, but was at laſt obliged to retreat with a conſiderable loſs.
Though theſe Tartars, in flying parties, pillage the Armenians and Georgians, if any ſtranger travelling into their country, or on the borders of it, ſeeks their protection, and chuſes a guide from among them, let him meet never ſo ſtrong a party, it is enough, if the guide declares he is his gueſt. They are hardly ever known to violate the laws of hoſpitality, in any inſtance of this nature.
In their perſons, they are well-made, of good ſtature, and extremely active; their countenance is ſwarthy, their features are regular, and their eyes black, and full of life.
Their dreſs reſembles the Greek or Arabian manner, many of them wearing the ſame kind of drawers, reach⯑ing to their ancles. Their caps are not ſo lofty as thoſe of the Perſians; neither do all of them wear their beard, ſome preferring whiſkers only.
They live after the manner of Perſians, profeſſing the Mahomedan religion. Their vallies are exceedingly fer⯑tile, [13] producing plenty of wheat, barley, and oats, with abundance of ſheep, and their hills are covered with vines. They are ingenious in ſeveral manufactures of wool and camels hair; and none of the neighbouring nations equal them in making fire-arms, which they fell to the Perſians. They deal largely in madder. The Armenians trade with theſe Tartars, and theſe Tartars with the Ruſſians.
I muſt not omit Tauris, ſuppoſed to be the ancient Ecbatana. It is called, by the Turks and Perſians, Ta⯑briz, and was the metropolis of Media. Diodorus Sicu⯑lus is of opinion, it was founded by Semiramis, who, with incredible labour, brought water there from the moun⯑tain Orontes; whilſt Joſephus aſſures us, that it was built, at leaſt a royal palace in it, by the prophet Daniel. It was formerly beſt known by the name of Ecbatana, and was then in the greateſt ſplendor. The ancients ſay, it was 15 miles about, and had walls 70 cubits high and 50 broad: but there is now little or nothing left, either of the walls or palaces. However, Tauris is ſtill a con⯑ſiderable town, being five miles round, populous, and a place of great trade. The inhabitants amount to about 80,000.
Tauris, like moſt other cities in Perſia, ſtands in a plain, ſurrounded by mountains, from whence there falls a ſmall ſtream, which runs through the middle of it; but, when the ſnows melt, is increaſed to a torrent. [14] Here are ſeveral noble meydans or ſquares, one of them almoſt equal to the royal meydan at Iſpahan. They have alſo their covered ſtreets or exchanges, where abun⯑dance of rich merchandize is expoſed to ſale; and their moſques and bagnios are much after the model of thoſe in other cities already deſcribed.
The city of Tauris has alſo often changed its maſ⯑ter. Sometimes the Turk, and at others the Perſian has poſſeſſed it; but, as the citizens ſeem attached to the Perſians, the Turks have ſeveral times burnt and plundered it. Tauris ſtands about 400 miles north of Iſpahan, which the caravans uſually travel in 24 days. Its latitude is 38 degrees odd minutes. From the towns and buildings already deſcribed, it will be eaſy to form a judgment of the reſt. I will proceed, therefore, to mention
Teflis, which is the capital of Georgia, and ſuppoſed to be the Acropolis of the ancients, which was taken by Pompey, but under the dominion of the Perſians, though inhabited chiefly by chriſtians, there being 14 chriſtian churches, and not one mahomedan moſque, except that in the caſtle, which ſtands on an eminence in the center. It is a biſhop's ſee, and has a handſome cathedral, built in form of a croſs. The other churches belong partly to the Georgians, and partly to the Ar⯑menians. Theſe, as well as the other public buildings are built of ſtone, as are their bazars, caravanſeras, bag⯑nios, [15] &c. which are after the ſame model with thoſe in other towns of Perſia. It is large, well peopled, and the houſes built with brick.
The climate of this country, (Georgia,) is ſoft, not very different from that of Italy. The men are re⯑markably tall, comely, robuſt, and well-made, oſten⯑tatious, and proud of a ſplendid appearance. The wo⯑men, under the name of Circaſſians, are celebrated for their beauty all over Aſia. I have already treated of Circaſſia, which lies much further to the north-weſt than Teflis, and have ſpoken of the women of this country.
Teflis is ſituated in 44 degrees of north latitude, on the river Kur or Cyrus, at the foot of a mountain; it is not of very large extent, but elegantly built. On the ſouth ſide, on the declivity of the mountain, ſtands the caſtle, once a place of ſtrength, but hardly tenable at preſent.
The next place I ſhall notice is Gombron, a ſea-port town, moſt reſorted to of any in the Perſian dominions, and where the Eaſt-India Company had a factory above 100 years. It is ſituated in 27 degrees 30 minutes north latitude, about 300 miles from Shirauz, is two or three miles round, and ſtands on a level ground, cloſe to the ſea, the narroweſt part of the Gulph of Perſia, the country almoſt inſenſibly riſing, every way, for ſome [16] miles, without any conſiderable hill, except towards the north. The coaſt of Arabia lies oppoſite to it, at about 10 leagues diſtance; but it does not ſeem to be further over than from Dover to Calais. Beſides the natives, it is inhabited by Engliſh, Dutch, Portugueſe, Arabs, Jews, Armenians, Banians, and ſeveral other nations, of which the Armenians and Banians are much the greateſt merchants. It has a wall towards the land; and towards the ſea there are three ſmall forts, mounted with five guns each, and a platform of eight. There is alſo a caſtle, mounted with 35 guns, for the ſecurity of the road. The houſes in many of the ſtreets are falling down, the people having the ſame humour here as in other parts of Perſia, to let thoſe of their anceſtors drop, and erect new ones for themſelves, through a ſuperſti⯑tious opinion, that if the perſon who inhabited a houſe, was, in their conceit, unlucky; the next inhabitant of the houſe will be unlucky alſo.
The beſt houſes are built of ſtone, brought from the iſlands of Kiſhee or Larrak; but they are generally built of brick [...], ſun-dried. They have ſometimes two ſtories, and a wooden contrivance to ſtrike the wind down into the lower rooms. Theſe machines are about 10 feet high, and look like towers. The houſes belonging to the Engliſh and Dutch Eaſt-India companies, are as well built as any in the town. But the Engliſh Factors, are moſt of them removed to Boſſora, at the bottom of the [17] Gulph, in the Turkiſh territories, which is the laſt city I ſhall take any notice of.
Boſſora, or Buſſora, is ſituated in latitude 31 degrees 30 minutes north, on the banks of a freſh-water river, which is a branch of the Euphrates. The city is a large one, but indifferently fortified. A mud-wall encircles the town, with mud-baſtions and turrets. It had former⯑ly a wet foſſe, which is now dried up in many parts; but notwithſtanding theſe diſadvantages, it held out upwards of eight months in 1777, when beſieged by the Perſians. Here is a grand moſque, and a convent of Italian miſ⯑ſionaries. Although the Great Deſart extends to the walls of the city, the banks of the river, on each ſide, are very fertile and pleaſant. Their fields produce corn, pulſe, rice, and ſeveral European fruits; and the coun⯑try round abounds in game.
Having mentioned the principal cities in exiſtence, I will mention one now in ruins; but for its antiquity and grandeur, better worth a deſcription than any we have dwelt on. This is the famous city of Perſepolis, where are found the nobleſt ruins, of an ancient palace or tem⯑ple, that are now to be ſeen on the face of the earth. Even Rome itſelf, they ſay, is nothing, compared with theſe venerable remains of antiquity. The place at this day is called Chilmanar or forty pillars. It is ſituated about 50 miles north-eaſt of Shirauz.
[18]It is ſeated at the foot of a mountain, at the north-eaſt end of that ſpacious plain, where Perſepolis once ſtood, and generally held to be part of the palace of Darius, who was conquered by Alexander the Great. It ſtands on a riſing ground; and the adjoining mountains encircle it in form of an amphitheatre. We aſcend to the pillars, by a grand flight of ſteps of blue ſtone, 104 in number, 30 feet in length, and 20 inches broad, ſo that a horſe may eaſily go up or down them.
Mr. Herbert ſays, it was built upon a mountain of dark coloured marble, and the ſteps hewed out of the ſolid rock; but thoſe who have viewed it more accurately ſince, obſerve that the ſteps are compoſed of large ſtones fifteen or ſixteen feet long, and of ſuch a thickneſs that ſix or ſeven ſteps are cut out of one ſtone; and the whole being ſo artificially joined, that they appear to be but one piece.
The ſtaircaſe divides, as you aſcend, one flight wind⯑ing to the right, and the other to the left, having a wall on each ſide, and a balluſtrade on the other. After⯑wards both flights, or branches, turn again, and end at a ſquare landing-place, from whence you go into a portico of white marble, 20 feet wide. On it are carved in baſſo relievo two beaſts, as large as elephants, but their bodies like horſes, with the feet and tails of oxen. Ten feet farther ſtand two fluted columns of whitiſh ſtone, about ſix feet high, beſide their capitals and [19] baſes, and as thick as three men can fathom round. A little farther, ſtand two pillaſters, embelliſhed with two ſphinxes of an immenſe ſize, dreſſed out with a profuſion of bead-work, repreſented ſtanding. On the ſides above are inſcriptions of an ancient character, which no one yet hath been able to decypher. Beyond this portal, is another flight of ſteps, leading to the grand hall of co⯑lumns, on its ſides, or walls, are a variety of figures in baſſo relievo, a kind of triumph, conſiſting of a great train of people, in diſtinct companies, ſome carrying banners, others offerings; after all, comes a car drawn by ſeveral horſes, with a little altar on it, from whence fire ſeems to aſcend. At the head of the ſtair-caſe is another baſſo relievo, repreſenting a lion ſeizing a bull, cut with great exactneſs, and cloſe to this, are other inſcriptions in ancient characters. On the top of the ſecond ſtaircaiſe is a ſquare place, which has been ſur⯑rounded with columns, to which the name of forty pillars has been given. Although a vaſt number of ages have elapſed ſince the foundation of this building, fifteen of the colums remain yet entire; they are from ſeventy to eighty feet in height, and are maſterly pieces of maſonry; their pedeſtals are curiouſly worked, and appear little injured by the hand of Time; the ſhafts are fluted to the top, and the capitals are adorned with a profuſion of frieze-work.
From this hall we proceed eaſtward, till we arrive at the remains of a large ſquare building, to which we [20] enter through a door of granite. Moſt of the doors and windows of this apartment are ſtill ſtanding; they are of black marble, and poliſhed like a mirror: on the ſides of the entrance are baſs-reliefs of two figures at full length, repreſenting a man ſtabbing a goat: over another door is the repreſentation of two men at full length; behind ſtands a domeſtic, holding a ſpread umbrella. At the ſouth entrance of this room, are two large pillars, on which are cut four figures dreſſed in long garments, holding in their hands ſpears ten feet in length. Vaſt numbers of broken pillars, ſhafts and capitals are ſcattered over a conſiderable extent of ground, ſome of them of ſuch enormous ſize, that it is wonderful how they could have been brought whole, and ſet up together. Indeed, every part of the remains of theſe noble ruins indicate their former grandeur, truly worthy of being the reſidence of a great and powerful monarch, and whilſt viewing them, the mind becomes impreſſed with an awful ſolemnity. When we conſider the celebrity of this vaſt empire, once the patron of the arts and ſciences, and the ſeat of a wiſe and flouriſhing government; when we reflect on the various changes and revolutions it has undergone; at one period, a field for the daring ambition of an Alex⯑ander, at another, for the enthuſiaſm of an Omar; we muſt feel the ſtrongeſt conviction of the mutability of all human events. There are the remains of other buildings, reaching up the ſide of the mountains, equally magnificent and beautiful in their ruins, with [21] human figures cut on the walls, carrying bows and arrows and ſpears in their hands, all of them with caps in the form of turrets, which was the mode of head⯑dreſs among the ancient Medes. Sir John Chardin, and Mr. Le Brun, have given it as their opinion, that this place was the ſepulture of the ancient kings of Perſia. The modern natives call this place the aſſembly of king Gemſheed, and ſay, that prince uſed to viſit it, with the nobles and great men of his court, in order to enjoy a delightful view of the adjacent country, of which there cannot be a finer proſpect than from hence. In another place, cloſe by, we aſcend by a ſtone ſtaircaiſe, into a magnificent court of a quadrangular form, ſeveral pe⯑deſtals of pillars, and the remains of two grand portals, all of granite, are ſtill viſible, and the cornices of the portals are perfect. On many of the broken pieces of the pillars are ancient inſcriptions. In ſeveral parts of this palace are ſtone aqueducts, cut under ground, eight feet deep, and a half broad, made with a deſign to carry off the water running down from the mountains.
Theſe venerable ruins have ſuffered much from the ravages of time; but what ſtill remains of them are as hard and durable as the ſoil they ſtand on; they are covered with inſcriptions, Mr. Niebur has given them all in his ſecond volume, moſt elegantly and accurately copied; but the moſt learned, and beſt acquainted with the eaſtern languages have been baffled in every attempt to make out their meaning. It is one of the moſt con⯑ſiderable [22] difficulties to ſolve, when, and by whom, this palace was originally built. The Grecian hiſtorians have given very imperfect accounts of it; and the Per⯑ſians no leſs ſo. By the preſent natives, Mr. Franklin ſays, the place is called Tukht Gemſheed, or the throne of King Gemſhed, who they affirm built it, between three and four thouſand years ago. It is related in Grecian hiſtory, that Alexander the Great, ſet fire to, and de⯑ſtroyed, the whole city of Perſepolis, the nobleſt and wealthieſt city in the world, with this rich and ſplendid palace, about the year of the world 3724, or 280 years before Chriſt; inſtigated to it in a fit of de⯑bauchery, by the celebrated courtezan Thais, the Athe⯑nian, in revenge for the towns the Perſian emperor had ſtroyed in Greece. But this ſtory, ſays Mr. Franklin, though it has the ſanction of hiſtory, if we reflect on what ſtill remains of theſe ruins, any one on viewing them would ſuppoſe ſuch an event impoſſible to have taken place. He might have burned the city, but of ſuch a nature are the remains of the palace, that all the fire that could be applied to them, would not make the ſmalleſt impreſſion on theſe huge maſſes of ſtone, equal in point of durability and hardneſs to the ſolid rock.
It is to be remarked, that in the figures throughout the whole of the palace, the rules of art are not attended to. The muſcles of the figures are wanting; yet the drapery is finely done; and the proportions, in general, are well kept up, though the contour is only obſerved, which gives a ſameneſs to the whole. Sir John Chardin [23] ſays, whoever was the architect, was ignorant of Grecian and of Roman architecture, and ſuppoſes the defects I have mentioned, were occaſioned by finiſhing the work in a hurry; but, on the other hand, it is more natural to conceive the work altogether to have been the ne plus ultra of thoſe days, as the ornaments of the palace of Shirauz, are in the ſame ſtile as theſe at Perſepolis, and as the architecture of the preſent Perſians, is ſimilar to that of ancient times.
The materials of which the ruins conſiſt, are chiefly hard, blue ſtone; but the doors and windows of the apart⯑ments are all of black marble, and ſo beautiful and highly poliſhed, that we may ſee our faces in them. One of the principal things worthy admiration, is the immenſe ſtrength of the foundation. The whole of the palace takes in a circumference of 1400 ſquare yards. The front is 600 paces from north to ſouth, and 390 from eaſt to weſt. The height of the foundation, in front, is in ſeveral parts from 40 to 50 feet, and conſiſts of two immenſe ſtones laid together. It is much to be feared that in the courſe of a few centuries, earthquakes may deſtroy the columns, and remaining apartments; but, whatever may be their fate, the foundations muſt endure, until the rock on which it is built ſhall ceaſe to exiſt.
CHAP. IV. Of the People.
[24]The women about Shirauz have, at all times, been celebrated over thoſe of other parts of Perſia, for their beauty, and not without reaſon. They are tall and well-ſhaped; but their bright and ſparkling eyes is a ſtriking beauty. This, however, is, in a great meaſure, owing to art; for they rub their eye-brows and eye-lids with the black flower of antimony, which adds an incomparable [27] brilliancy to their natural luſtre. As the women in Mahomedan countries are, down to the meaneſt, covered with a veil from head to foot, a ſight is never to be obtained of them in the ſtreet; but living, as Mr. Franklin did, in the family of a Perſian, he had many opportunities of ſeeing them unveiled. The females, ſays Hanway, who do not labour in the field, are ſeldom ſeen abroad, except in a morning, before the ſun riſes, and then they are covered with veils, which reach to their feet. When they travel on horſeback, every lady of diſtinction is not only veiled, but has generally a ſervant who runs, or rides, before her to clear the way; and on ſuch occa⯑ſions the men, even in the market-place, always turn their backs till the women are paſt, it being deemed the higheſt ill manners to look at them. The care which they take to conceal their faces, to avoid the imputation of acting indelicately, and contrary to cuſtom; has made ſo ſtrong an impreſſion on them, that if a woman was accidentally ſurprized, ſhe would ſhew her whole perſon rather than her face.
The dreſs of the women is ſimple, differing from the men, rather for the diſtinction of ſexes, than otherwiſe. They wear neither turbans on the head, nor ſaſhes about their waiſt, and their coats or veſts reach almoſt down to their heels. They adorn their arms with brace⯑lets, and their heads with jewels of ſeveral kinds: one of theſe is compoſed of a light, gold chain-work, ſet with ſmall pearls, with a thin, gold-plate pendant, about the [28] ſize of a crown-piece, on which is engraved an Arabian prayer; this is fixed to the hair at the upper part of the temple, and hangs upon the cheek, below the ear, or is bound round the arm. They have large ear-rings, and ſome, bordering on India, wear gold rings ſet with pearls in their noſtrils. The poorer ſort wear the ſame things in baſer metal. Their hair hangs in treſſes, falling down the back. Their ſhirts, as well as the men's, are of a thin manufacture of ſilk and cotton; but theſe are open at the breaſt, in the manner of men's ſhirts in Europe, whilſt the men's are ſupported on the left ſhoulder by a ſmall button: the women alſo wear drawers and ſlippers as the men.
Some girls wear a ſtiffened cap upon their heads, turned up before like a hunting cap, with a heron's feather in it. Neither men nor women wear gloves, but their fingers are full of rings, as their arms are of brace⯑lets. They wear necklaces of gold or pearl, hanging down on the boſom, with a locket full of perfume.
As black hair, and large, black eyes are moſt common, ſo are they moſt in eſteem, and the thickeſt and broadeſt eye-brows are thought the fineſt. The women, if their eye-brows be not black, will, as I have obſerved, colour them; and are accuſtomed to paint their faces, and rub their hands and feet with Hannay, a kind of orange-coloured pomatum.
[29]As the cloaths, both of the men and women, are of the richeſt flowered and brocaded ſilks, it appears that dreſs is no inconſiderable article in Perſia, particularly as perſons of ſmall fortune endeavour to vie with their ſuperiors, and will have fine cloaths, though they want food. Thoſe who wear ſables, which they will not be without, if they can purchaſe them, ſeldom pay leſs than an hundred pounds for a cloſe-bodied coat. All this, with the rich trappings of their horſes, when they ride, which they do almoſt every day (if they go but a ſtone's throw) muſt amount to a vaſt ſum; and this keeps them poor. However, as there are no where more perſonable men, finer horſes, or richer equipages, the Perſians are allowed to make as ſplendid a figure as any people what⯑ever. Poverty may prey on them at home, but they are loaded with gold and jewels abroad; and as they have always a clear ſun-ſhine and bright heaven, theſe caſt a more than ordinary luſtre on their perſons; and their finery is ſet off to the greateſt advantage.
In point of dreſs, the Perſians differ remarkably from the Turks; for in Turkey any perſon who is not a Seiùd, or deſcendant of the prophet, wearing the leaſt green upon his garments, would moſt probably be ſtoned: whereas in Perſia, green is the general and favourite colour, even to their ſhoes. A Turk alſo thinks himſelf defiled by the touch of a chriſtian, even on his garments. The Perſians, on the contrary, will [30] eat out of the ſame plate, drink out of the ſame cup, and ſmoak out of the ſame calean.
The Perſians, in their diſpoſitions, ſays Mr. Franklin, are much inclined to ſudden anger, are quick, fiery, and very ſenſible of affronts, which they reſent on the ſpot; but they are not vindictive; and yet, if their kindneſs to their beſt friends happens to be turned by the fortune of war into enmity, they often become inſenſible: this ſeems to be more owing to a cuſtom of cruelty, than a revengeful diſpoſition. On the other hand, there are not many inſtances of the placable temper which the chriſtian religion ſo ſtrongly recommends. In theory, however, they are friends to this virtue, and apparently exceed the chriſtians in the duty of reſignation. They are of a ſedentary turn, and delight in ſitting ſtill and muſing. I never found any of them, ſays Hanway, walk in their apartments, as the Engliſh often do. A Turk being on board an Engliſh man of war, enquired very ſeriouſly, if the people were troubled with an evil ſpirit, becauſe, ſays he, they are never at reſt.
The Perſians are certainly a brave and courageous people; but their frequent wars have much depraved their ancient urbanity of manners, and introduced a ſtrife peculiar to the lower claſs of people: when two perſons begin fighting, it always raiſes a great croud, who gene⯑rally enter into the conteſt, and the whole preſently becomes a ſcene of tumult and confuſion, until the arrival of the [31] Dàroga, or judge of the police, who puts an end to the fray. Hoſpitality is a part of their religion. On occa⯑ſions of the leaſt intercourſe, men of any diſtinction invite ſtrangers as well as their friends to their table, and it is remarkable how they pride themſelves in other teſtimonies of reſpect.
They are naturally inclined to temperance, and, with regard to diet, ſeem to be more in a ſtate of nature than the Europeans. By way of amuſement, they uſe opiates, but not near ſo much as the Turks. The following is their mode of living. They always riſe at day-break, in order to perform their devotions. Their firſt prayer is ſaid before ſun-riſe, after which they breakfaſt: this conſiſts of grapes, or any other fruits of the ſeaſon, with a little bread, and cheeſe made of goats-milk; they then drink a cup of very ſtrong coffee, without milk or ſugar; and then the calean, or pipe, is introduced, the ſmoke of which is contrived to be drawn through a baſon of cold water; for the Perſians of all ranks ſmoak tobacco.
Their ſecond time of prayer is repeated when the ſun declines from the meridian, ſoon after which they dine. Their dinner conſiſts of curds, bread, and fruits of va⯑rious kinds, animal food not being uſual at this meal. The third hour of prayer is about four o'clock in the afternoon.
[32]The fourth hour of prayer is after ſun-ſet. When this is finiſhed, the Perſians eat their principal meal, or ſupper. This generally conſiſts of pilau, which is boiled rice, well buttered and ſeaſoned, with a fowl, a piece of mutton, or a kid, ſerved up with it, and ſometimes coloured with ſaffion, or curry; ſometimes they eat roaſt meat. When the meal is ready, a ſervant brings notice of it, and at the ſame time brings an ewer and water to waſh their hands, which is an invariable cuſtom with them, both before and after eating. They eat very quick, conveying their food to their mouths with their fingers, knives and forks being unknown in Perſia, and greaſe their chins and beards as much as their fingers. Sherbets of different ſorts are introduced, and the meal concludes with a deſert of de⯑licious fruits. The ſupper being finiſhed, the family ſit in a circle, and entertain each other by relating ſtories, (of which they are exceſſively fond,) and alſo of repeating paſſages from the works of their moſt favourite poets, and amuſing themſelves at various kinds of games; and it is worthy of remark, that when the oldeſt man in com⯑pany ſpeaks, though poor, and at the lower-end of the room, he is always attended to. The fifth, or laſt, prayer is ſaid about an hour after ſupper.
Mr. Hanway ſupped once with a man of diſtinction, and deſcribes it as follows: Supper being brought in, a ſervant preſented a baſon of water, and a napkin hung over his ſhoulders. He went to every one in the com⯑pany, and poured water on their hands to waſh. In the [33] court-yard ſtood a lamp, which was ſupplied with tallow, and in the middle of the room, upon the floor, was one large wax candle, which they ſnuffed with ſciſſars into a tea-cup of water. A large ſalver; in form of a tea-board, was ſet for every perſon, covered with a plate of Pilau, in which was a ſmall quantity of mince-meat, mixed up with fruit and ſpices. There were alſo plates of comfits, ſeveral china baſons of ſherbets, as ſweet, ſour, and other waters, with cakes of rice, and others of wheat-flour, on which were ſprinkled the ſeeds of poppies, and others of the like nature. As they eſteem it an abomination to cut either bread, or any kind of meat after it is dreſſed, theſe cakes are made thin, that they may be eaſily broken with the hand, and their meat, which is generally mutton or fowls, is ſo prepared that they divide it with their fingers. Pork is never eaten here, nor veal, and beef but ſeldom; nor do they eat hares, or other animals forbidden by the Jews. They uſe no beaten pepper, only whole pepper. They never ſalt their meat, nor is ſalt ever brought to table. They dreſs their meat and fowls the day they are killed, and put by nothing to be cold. They ſit down on the floor, croſs-legged, at their meals, and a cloth is ſpread on the carpet. In common families, the perſon who has the pro⯑viſion before him, diſtributes it to the company. They uſe no ſpoons, except for ſoups or liquid, and take up their rice by handfuls, as do the people in India. They waſh their hands, before and after meals, and wipe them in their handkerchiefs. Common people at Iſpahan, ſel⯑dom [34] dreſs their food at home, but when they have ſhut up their ſhops, go to an eating-houſe, and buy Pilau for their families. It is remarked of the Perſians, that ſo far from ſhutting their doors at meal-times, they invite all to eat, that come to their houſes at that time, remem⯑bering to this day the hoſpitality of Abraham, and ob⯑ſerving, that, had he not been of a hoſpitable diſpo⯑ſition, he, probably, had miſſed the honour of entertaining three angels: every man may retire from an entertain⯑ment, without ceremony, and what they leave, of meats, is always given to the poor.
When a perſon makes an entertainment, it is uſually a ſupper; notwithſtanding which the gueſts generally come at 9 or 10 in the morning and ſpend the whole day. They diſcourſe, they ſmoak, eat ſweat-meats, and paſs away the time, in a thouſand amuſements. Some⯑times they hear heroic poems, in honour of their prince. Sometimes ſinging-women are introduced, who ſing, dance, and play, and ſhew a number of antic tricks, to divert the company, and if any of the gueſts are diſ⯑poſed to withdraw with any of theſe dancing girls, they are ſhewn into a private room, and when they return, no one takes any notice of it. Wine they have none, but their uſual drink is ſherbets and water, cooled in ſummer-time with ice. The officers of the army will indulge with wine, and other perſons drink under a pre⯑tence of doing it for their health, but the chief of what is here made, is tranſported to neighbouring countries, or [35] drank by chriſtians in Perſia. But they raiſe their ſpirits with opium. Mankind ſeem generally to confeſs that they cannot ſuſtain the cares and inquietudes of life, without ſome ſuch expedient. What is tobacco but an opiate? It is not the ſmell or taſte we are enamoured with, but it lulls men into pleaſing thoughts. Within an hour after they have taken a pill of opium, it begins to operate; and a thouſand pleaſant ſcenes preſent them⯑ſelves to their imagination, they laugh, they ſing, and ſay abundance of droll things, like men intoxicated with wine; but when the effect of it is gone off, they find their ſpirits exhauſted, and grow penſive and melancholy, till they repeat the doſe; and the longer they have been uſed to it, the greater proportion they muſt take to anſwer the purpoſe, ſo that ſome take as much at one time as would deſtroy half a dozen Europeans. A decoction of poppy-ſeed is ſold alſo in moſt cities in Perſia, and in theſe houſes we ſhall ſee people eating and talking as ridiculouſly as men do when they are drunk. If there is any reaſon in the prohibition of wine, it is to prevent people playing the fool, and injuring their health, which is as effectually done by opium as by wine.
In their converſation, the Perſians aim much at ele⯑gance, and are perpetually repeating verſes and paſſages from the works of their moſt favourite poets, Hafiz, Sàdi, and Jàmi, a practice univerſal from the higheſt to the loweſt; for thoſe who have not the advantages of education, make ſhift thus to bear their part in converſa⯑tion, [36] by remembering what they hear. They delight alſo in jokes and quaint expreſſions, and are fond of playing upon each other, which they ſometimes do with great ele⯑gance and irony. There is one thing much to be ad⯑mired in their converſations, which is the ſtrict attention they pay to the perſon ſpeaking, whom they never inter⯑rupt on any account.
They are ſo accuſtomed in their common diſcourſe to uſe extravagant and hyperbolical compliments, on the moſt trifling occaſions, that it would, at firſt, inſpire a ſtranger with an idea, that every inhabitant of the place was willing to lay down his life, ſhed his blood, or ſpend his money, in his ſervice; and this mode of addreſs (which in fact means nothing) is practiſed not only among the genteel people, but even among the meaneſt artificers. Freedom of converſation is a thing totally unknown here; as, that walls have ears, is pro⯑verbially in the mouth of every one. The fear of chains, which bind their bodies, has alſo enſlaved their minds; and their addreſs to men of ſuperior rank to themſelves, is marked with ſigns of the moſt abject and ſlaviſh ſub⯑miſſion, while, on the contrary, as all men of this ſtamp are, they are as haughty and overbearing to their inferiors.
The Perſians, with reſpect to outward behaviour, are certainly the Pariſians of the eaſt. Whilſt a rude and inſolent demeanor marks the character of the Turkiſh nation towards foreigners and chriſtians, the behaviour [37] of the Perſians would, on the contrary, do honour to the moſt civilized nations. They are kind, courteous, civil, and obliging, to all ſtrangers, without being guided by thoſe religious prejudices ſo prevalent in every other mahomedan country. They are fond of enquiring after the manners and cuſtoms of Europe, and, in re⯑turn, very readily afford any information in reſpect to their own country. Hoſpitality is, with them, ſo great a virtue, that a man thinks himſelf highly honoured, if you will enter his houſe, and partake of what it affords; whereas, going out of a houſe, without ſmoking a ca⯑lean, or taking ſome refreſhment, is a high affront. They ſay, that every meal a ſtranger partakes with them brings a bleſſing on the houſe.
The ancient Perſians are recorded to have taught their children a moſt exact reverence for truth; but the pre⯑ſent generation are as notorious for falſehood; they poiſon with a ſweet-meat, in always ſaying what is pleaſing, whether it be true or not. Franklin ſays, they are the greateſt liars in the world, practiſing the moſt im⯑probable falſities with the graveſt air imaginable, and ſo far from being abaſhed by a detection, they always en⯑deavour to turn it off with a laugh; and even confeſs themſelves, that they think there is no harm in tel⯑ling a lie, provided it turns out of any benefit to themſelves; and they will always, in every buſineſs they are engaged in, firſt endeavour to bring it about by lying and knavery; which if unſucceſsful in, (thoſe with whom they have to deal being fully as expert as them⯑ſelves,) [38] they will then conclude the bargain with truth and honeſty; but either way to them is equally indifferent. In their diſpoſitions, they are chearful, but rather inclined to ſeriouſneſs than loud mirth.
They are very eager to gain money, and are laviſh in expending it. When they have furniſhed themſelves with an equipage, a houſe, and gardens, agreeable to their wiſhes, they will, rather than lay by their money, lay it out in building caravanſeras, moſques, and on other public occaſions, inſomuch that travellers obſerve, that there are no people in the world that take leſs thought for the morrow. A man to whom a fortune of 10,000l. ſhall fall, will in a few months lay it out in purchaſing wives and ſlaves, cloaths and furniture, without con⯑ſidering where he is to get more, and in two or three months after this, will diſpoſe of what he has bought, for preſent ſubſiſtence. This Chardin aſſures us, he has ſeen in a thouſand inſtances.
Another charge againſt the Perſians is, that they are much addicted to women, and the reaſon alledged is, that they have ſeveral wives and concubines; but whether any other people would not have as many, if their laws per⯑mitted them, is a queſtion, eſpecially if they were taught, as the mahomedans are, that the enjoyment of women will conſtitute a great part of their happineſs in the next world, as well as in this. Surely thoſe nations may, with more reaſon, be charged with laſciviouſneſs, who [39] break through all reſtraints both civil and religious, and fly at the whole ſex, even the wives and daughters of their moſt intimate friends and acquaintance. But if it be true that the Perſians admire boys, and that every great man has his Ganymede, it is a crime, they are juſtly to be deteſted for. This, however, ſeems to intimate that they have leſs reſpect for the fair ſex than they ought, and contradicts the former charge.
The notion which the Perſians have imbibed con⯑cerning the female world, prevents their being involved in the diſtreſſes of love, ſuch as loſing their ſenſes for the ſake of a woman, though they are betrayed into many improprieties of conduct on this account. Jealouſy, which generally prevails in the warmeſt climates, is not unknown to the heart of a Perſian; the nearer approach to the ſun may affect mahomedans as well as chriſtians; but as, in the politer countries of Chriſtendom, women are generally conſidered on an equality with men, and, in Perſia, as much inferior to them, there muſt, conſe⯑quently, among chriſtians, be a greater regard to con⯑jugal love. The difference in religion, as well as in the cuſtoms and manners of countries, will hardly admit a compariſon; but as jealouſy ſometimes occaſions the in⯑fidelity of women in Europe, it is always a ſafeguard to them in Aſia, where they are never conſtituted the guardians of their own honour.
[40]We find cuſtom has a great influence on the manners of mankind in all countries. In France, there is a more liberal indulgence to women than in England; and yet, contrary to this rule, it is beyond diſpute, that Engliſh wives greatly exceed the French in chaſtity. This I take to be owing to the natural gaiety of the French, which puts them more off their guard, whereas a more ſerious turn of mind creates an awe, and keeps the enemy at a diſtance. On the other hand, in Portugal, and other countries in the ſouth of Europe, where jea⯑louſy moſt abounds, and where the leaſt confidence is re⯑poſed in women, there is the moſt incontinence; ſo that it is hard to ſay, whether jealouſy has tended moſt to this immorality, or this immorality eſtabliſhed jea⯑louſy as a kind of natural vice.
In ſhort, whether it is from jealouſy, or what other cauſe, there is no part of the world where the women are ſo ſtrictly guarded as in Perſia. Even in the Indies and Turkey, neighbouring kingdoms, they live in free⯑dom in compariſon with theſe. For though a huſband ſhould have the greateſt indifference for his wife, yet the reflection a wife's imprudent conduct caſts upon her huſband, is more than he is able to bear; and as a woman is here conſidered as polluted, if ſhe ſuffers a man to caſt but an eye upon her; and both her and her huſband's honour is loſt by her appearing in public, it is no won⯑der their apartments are ſo ſtrictly guarded. If this furious love and jealouſy, was the conſequence of the [41] climate, it would at all times have been the ſame; but we find, in the days of the patriarch Abraham, who lived on the confines of this country, the women en⯑joyed as great a liberty as with us, or Sarah's beauty would not have brought her huſband's life in danger. We find alſo Ahaſuerus, king of this very country, left Haman in the room with his beloved queen, whilſt he retired to his garden; and Eſther made entertainment for the great lords of the court, and was there in perſon; which ſufficiently ſhews that they allowed the ladies as great liberties in Perſia, in thoſe days, as in any part of Europe at preſent.
The Perſians give this reaſon, among others, for ſhut⯑ting up their women, that their prophet was heard to ſay, in his laſt moments, whilſt dying, ‘Take care of your religion, and your wives.’ And great care they take of them indeed, for their Harams are not incloſed with a ſingle wall, but frequently have two or three, and theſe of an extraordinary height, The men are taught alſo, as they value their ſalvation and the glory of God, never to caſt an eye on their neighbour's women, or even the places where they are kept; and if they ſhould meet the camels that carry them in the ſtreets or on the road, though they are ſhut up ſo cloſe that it is impoſſible to ſee them, yet the men turn aſide their faces as they paſs by, or go out of the way. And the women are taught, that their honour and virtue does not conſiſt in preſerving their chaſtity only, but in pre⯑venting [42] their being ſeen, or ſeeing any man but their lord; and they are accordingly prohibited from conver⯑ſing with their brothers or neareſt male relations. We are ſpeaking now of the women kept in the Harams of great men, ſo great a particularity not being always preſerved with other women.
As the Perſians hold, that women were made only for their pleaſure, and for the continuance of the ſpecies, and that there is no manner of occaſion for them in the management of the affairs of the world, as in buſineſs of any kind whatever, they ſuffer them to paſs their lives in idleneſs and luxury. Accordingly we ſee them, almoſt all the day, lolling on carpets, with their little ſlaves rubbing and chafing them, which is the common amuſe⯑ment in the eaſt. Sometimes they take opium, or ſmoke their country tobacco, which is ſo mild, that it may be taken from morning till night, without diſturbing their heads. Their food is dreſſed by their ſlaves, and their cloaths alſo made and waſhed by them, ſo that they have nothing to do but to indulge themſelves, and pleaſe their tyrants.
The women of the Haram are attended chiefly by eunuchs, and there are a vaſt number of them diſperſed throughout the whole kingdom of Perſia, eſpecially in the king's palaces, and thoſe of the quality, where they have almoſt every thing of value entruſted to their care; and, in a manner, govern the affairs of their maſters. [43] The women never ſtir abroad without them, either on a viſit, or even to the bath: but they are not per⯑mitted to interrupt their privacy in their chambers.
The eunuchs alſo teach the children of the family to read and write, and inſtruct them in the principles of their religion, till it is thought fit to put them into the hands of the learned; and even then they have the care of the young gentlemen, not ſuffering them to be at any time out of their ſight; and as to the king's children, who never ſtir out of the Haram till they come to the throne, they have no other maſters. Some few of theſe eunuchs, are verſed in the liberal and mechanic arts; and it is happy where the prince who ſucceeds falls into the hands of ſuch a one; for, otherwiſe, he comes to the throne a meer novice.
Eunuchs are generally cut between ſeven and ten years of age; if not done till they are fifteen, not one in four would ſurvive the operation. An eunuch between eight and ſixteen years of age is ſold, in Perſia, for 100l. Engliſh money, at leaſt, and ſometimes for 200l. according to their capacities. People chuſe to buy them, in order to train them up to their wiſhes, which done, they ſeldom change their maſters whilſt they live. Not having any friends or relations which they know, their ſole dependence is on their lord, and they make it their whole buſineſs to pleaſe him, and generally manage matters ſo as to obtain the government of the family. [44] They are brought from the coaſt of Malabar. Few per⯑ſons have any white eunuchs, except the king, who has ſeldom leſs, of one ſort or other, than three or four thouſand. Men of the firſt rank have uſually half a dozen in their houſes; thoſe of inferior quality two or three. As theſe unhappy men are not taken up with amorous purſuits, and can have no views to the raiſing of families of their own, they are generally very diligent in their reſpective employments, and faithful to their maſters.
CHAP. V. Of their Cuſtoms, &c.
THE uſual ſalute, in this country, is bowing the body a little, and clapping the right hand to the breaſt; but men never ſtir their cap or their turban. Thoſe who are more familiar, preſs the palm of your hand, between both theirs, and then raiſe them to their forehead, to expreſs the high and cordial reſpect they have for you. Before the king, the viceroys of provinces, and other great men, they bow their faces three times to the ground, as they approach them. As to Europeans, if they are not clothed in the Perſian dreſs, they expect them to take off their hats, and to be treated with the ſame marks of [45] reſpect, as are ſhewn to men of quality in their own country. The awful manner in which the Perſians treat their ſuperiors in rank, ſcarce having any voice or opinion whilſt in their preſence, is a ſpecimen of the genuine growth of arbitrary power, and a deſpotic in⯑vaſion of the common ſenſe, as well as the common liberty, of mankind.
Upon any occaſion of mourning, or rejoicing, the Perſians never fail to viſit each other; and people of condition always expect the compliments of their de⯑pendants on ſuch occaſions. They are introduced into a large hall, where coffee and tobacco is ſet before them, and with which they refreſh themſelves, till the great man appears. As ſoon as they ſee him, every man riſes up, and ſtands in his place. Having bowed to them, as he paſſes by, every one bows much, lower to him again; and after he has taken his ſeat, he makes a ſign to the company to ſit. If the maſter of the houſe be already in his hall, the viſitor comes in ſoftly, and, ſtep⯑ping to the next vacant place, ſtands gravely with his feet cloſe together and his hands acroſs, till the maſter of the houſe makes a ſign to him to ſit down. If a perſon receives a viſit from a ſuperior, he acts different from the Engliſh cuſtom, in placing him on the right hand, it being a mark of reſpect, in Perſia, to place a perſon on the left hand.
[46]The Perſians are not much addicted to gaming, in⯑deed moſt of the ſcrupulous ones, conſider all games of chance to be unlawful; but there are thoſe who play at cards, dice, tables, cheſs, and other games, not in uſe among us. The King, and perſons of rank, divert themſelves ſometimes with the fights of wild beaſts as in India, and the common people are amuſed, at times, with tumblers, rope-dancers, and jugglers, as with us. They have, alſo, martial and rural amuſements. The former I will ſpeak of by and by, the latter conſiſts in hunting and courſing.
Their greyhounds are ſomething like our Iriſh grey⯑hounds, but the ſtags and antelopes they courſe are ſo ſwift of foot, that the dogs cannot come up with them, without the aſſiſtance of hawks, of which, they have various kinds brought from Circaſſia, Muſcovy, and the northern parts of the empire. Theſe hawks are taught not only to fly at partridges, quails, rabbits, hares, &c. but even at deer, and wild beaſts; and to train them up to this, they ſtuff the ſkin of theſe animals, faſten a piece of fleſh on the head of it, with which they feed the hawk, drawing the ſtuffed ſkin along upon wheels, to uſe them to fix themſelves on the head whilſt it moves. When they have uſed the young hawk to this for ſome time, they carry him to the ſport with ſome old ſtaunch hawk that is uſed to the game. The dogs being let looſe, the hawks are ſoon after thrown off, who purſue the deer, faſtening on its noſe, ſtriking their talons into the [47] fleſh, and keep beating their wings about his head, ſo that he cannot ſee his way, and thus gives the dogs an oppor⯑tunity to come up with him. The gentlemen uſually carry a little kettle-drum at their ſaddle-bow, to call off their hawks. Some of them, it is ſaid, have formerly been taught to fly at men. Chardin tells us, that the governor of Tauris, whom he was particularly ac⯑quainted with, uſed to divert himſelf with this ſport, ſometimes not ſparing even his friends; that one day he let his hawks fly at a gentleman, and they tore his face and eyes in that manner, that he died of it, which the King being made acquainted with, reſented it ſo far, that he turned him out of office.
When the King, or the great Omrahs or lords go a hunting, the country people, for ten or fifteen leagues round, are ordered to drive all the wild beaſts, and game, into a certain place ſurrounded with ſtrong nets or fences, and, when thus incloſed, every one of the company ſhoots at which he pleaſes, and a horrible ſlaughter is made of them. Many hundreds are often killed at one of theſe hunting matches, but they uſu⯑ally wait till the men of the greateſt rank in the field come up, and diſcharges an arrow, after which every one ſhoots as faſt as he can, there being a ſtrange med⯑ley of deer, antelopes, wild hogs, wolves, foxes, hares, &c. all driven in a crowd together. As for hounds, and hunting by ſcent, they know nothing of it; indeed their country ſeems too dry for this kind of ſport, even had [48] they proper dogs. They frequently, however, train up panthers and leopards to hunt the game, or rather to ſurprize it, for theſe animals creep from one cover to another, 'till they can jump upon their prey, as a cat does on a mouſe, but never run after it in a continued courſe.
About Aſtrab [...]d, the peaſants ſupport themſelves by catching wild ducks. They go in boats on the Caſpian, during the night near the marſhy banks, which are co⯑vered with ruſhes, and carry great lights on the ſtern; then ringing a number of ſmall bells, the birds are confounded, and fly to their very hands.
Muſic ſeems to be no part of their genius. Both ſing⯑ing and dancing are conſidered, in Perſia, as diſgraceful. People of condition will not ſuffer their children to learn either the one or the other; but it is left, almoſt entirely, as it is all over the eaſt, to common wenches and proſtitutes. It is reckoned an indecency, in people of any reputation, to ſing, and would render a man contemptible, who ſhould attempt it in company. They call their ſinging-women Caine, intimating that they derive their ſkill from the daughters of Cain, who, they pretend, were the firſt inventors of ſinging and muſic in the eaſt. They ſing and play by rule, though they make but poor har⯑mony, at leaſt ſuch as is pleaſing to an European ear, yet they are much delighted with our muſic. There is no ſuch thing as ſinging in parts, but ſing one after another, [49] and generally to ſome ſtrung inſtrument, as the lute, or the viol. Their men ſing better than the women, but there are not many of them that practiſe it, muſic being prohibited by their religion. Their eccleſiaſtics and devo⯑tees will not ſo much as be preſent at ſuch entertain⯑ments, which is one reaſon that the ſcience is not arrived at a greater perfection there. They have a great num⯑ber of inſtruments both of ſtrung and wind muſic, ſome in ſhape like our hautboys, and flutes, others, like the viol, harp, virginals, kettle-drum, and trumpet. But the ſtrings of their inſtruments are not made of gut, touching any thing belonging to a dead animal, eſpe⯑cially the entrails, being held a pollution; the ſtrings, therefore, are made of twiſted ſilk or braſs-wire.
Their trumpet is the moſt monſtrous inſtrument for ſize and ſound that can be met with; it is commonly ſeven or eight feet long and proportionably wide at the great end, and as much as a man can hold up. Theſe, and their drums, in a manner drown all other ſounds, and, indeed, their muſic, as it is called, ſerves chiefly, inſtead of clocks, to let people know the time of day or night, ſounding conſtantly at certain hours. Bells they have none, and when the King, or any great man, goes out of his palace, notice is always given of it by the ſound of drums and trumpets, placed over the palace-gates, or in ſome balcony, or gallery; and their noiſe is ſo great, that it may be heard at a vaſt diſtance. In ſome places, muſic and dancing girls make part of a [50] great man's equipage, and run before him when he goes abroad; but, in general, the performers are a ragged, ſtrolling rabble, and, except ſome of the King's, are ſcarce worth hearing. However, on any feſtival, as the circumciſing of a child, or other joyful occaſion, they come and play before people's doors, and uſually have ſomething given them for their pains.
Hanway ſays, that the King's ſecretary invited him at Amul, (where there is a palace, and which city is ſaid to have been founded upwards of 4000 years,) to hear his muſic, of which, one inſtrument reſembled a flute, another a kettle-drum, and a third a guitar, to which an old man and two boys ſung and danced. The boys moved their heads, legs, and arms, whilſt ſinging, in a very extravagant manner. A prieſt was next ſent for, remarkable for being a good ſinger; and this man, raiſed his voice to a degree of amazement, his quavers were mixed with a very harſh guttural ſound, and the diſtortions of his viſage ſuch as created rather horror than delight.
I will take the opportunity here, of ſaying ſomething of their mode of travelling. There are no wheel-car⯑riages in this country, but all perſons travel on camels, horſes, mules, or aſſes. The women, who are to be concealed as much as poſſible, are put into a ſquare wooden machine, a kind of covered chair, called Ked⯑gavay, about three feet deep, and juſt high enough for [51] a perſon to ſit down in. Over head are three or four hoops, like thoſe which ſupport the tilt of a waggon, with a cloth thrown over them. Theſe are hung over the back of a camel like a pair of paniers. Their aſſes are much larger and ſwifter of foot than ours, and will trot ten miles at a pretty good rate, but are very ob⯑ſtinate and unlucky, and frequently throw their riders. But if travellers have any great diſtance to go, they perform their journey with caravans, or Cafilas, as they are called in Perſia. A Cafila is compoſed of camels, horſes, and mules, the whole of which are under the direction of a Cheharwa Dàr, or maſter. It is to him the price of a mule or camel is paid, and he ſtipulates with the traveller to feed and take care of the beaſt during the journey. He has, under him, ſeveral inferior ſervants, who help to unload the beaſts of burden, water them, and attend them. Whilſt on the journeys, the Cafila keeps as cloſe as poſſible, and, on its arrival at Munzil Gah, or place of encampment for the day, each load is depoſited on a particular ſpot, marked out by the maſter, to which the merchant who owns the goods repairs. His luggage forms a creſcent; in the centre are placed the bedding and proviſions, a rope, or line made of hair, is then drawn round the whole, at the diſtance of about three yards each way, which ſerves to diſtinguiſh the ſeparate encampments. During the night, the beaſts are all brought to their ſtations, op⯑poſite to the goods they are to carry in the morning, and are made faſt to the hair-rope above mentioned. [52] At the hour of moving, which is generally between three and four in the morning, they load the mules and camels; and the paſſengers are awakened by the jingling of the bells tied round the necks of the beaſts, in order to prevent their ſtraggling during their march. When all things are ready, the maſter orders thoſe neareſt the road to advance, and the whole moves off in regular ſucceſſion. Where there are caravanſeras, travellers find their lodging gratis, and can there purchaſe pro⯑viſions at the beſt hand.
Though the roads, in this country, are ſteep and mountainous, yet ſuch care is taken in laying bridges and cauſeways, and to level and open the ways, that a traveller ſeldom meets with any difficulties, but what are eaſily ſurmounted.
Here are no general poſts, but if any perſon has letters to ſend, he diſpatches a Shater or footman expreſs, who will travel a thouſand miles in 18 or 20 days, and not aſk more than 20d. or 2s. a day Engliſh. They carry with them a bottle of water, and a little bag of proviſion, and this ſerves them for thirty or forty hours. They generally leave the high road, and croſs the country the neareſt way. There are families which make this their only employment, and breed their children up to it, practiſing them to run from their infancy.
[53]The king, and all the great men, have ſeveral of theſe ſhaters, or running-footmen in their retinue; but before a man can be admitted one of the king's footmen, he muſt give ſufficient proof that he wants neither heels nor breath, for he muſt run from the great gate of the palace, to a place a league and a half from the city, twelve times in one day, and each time bring an arrow, which is delivered him by thoſe who ſtand at the end of the race, to ſhew he has run the whole courſe; and this he performs between the riſing and ſetting of the ſun, being no leſs than a hundred and eight miles. It is always ſome favourite ſervant of the king's who is ad⯑mitted to this honour. On the day of trial, the elephants and horſemen are drawn up in the royal ſquare, with drums and trumpets ſounding, as if it were ſome feſ⯑tival. The great men give preſents to the ſhater, and ſome ride the courſe with him, to ingratiate themſelves with the prince, and the mob hail him every time he returns with ſhouts and acclamations. The chams and viceroys, who admit of a ſhater into their ſervice, make him run the ſame number of miles, and they are careſſed and preſented by all their dependants in the ſame manner the king's ſhaters are, though not ſo largely; for it is uſual for the ſhater to receive a thouſand pounds on ſuch an occaſion.
CHAP. VI. Of their Marriages, Births, Funerals, &c.
[54]AS the women are never to be ſeen in Perſia, a man is obliged to be contented with ſuch an account of his miſtreſs's beauty and accompliſhments as he receives from others. They are allowed four legal wives, with whom they may enter into formal contracts before the civil magiſtrate (who is alſo an eccleſiaſtic); but they are generally contented with one, and ſhe ſeems to be taken on political views, on account of the diſtinction or intereſt of her family, or to ſerve as a governeſs or miſtreſs to the reſt of the women who wait upon her, and rank only as concubines, notwithſtanding they have the honour of their maſter's bed and their iſſue are equally legitimate; for there is no ſuch thing as a baſtard in Perſia. Thoſe born before, and thoſe after marriage, have the ſame pri⯑vileges; nor is it any diſavantage to a ſon, in regard to his inheritance, to be born of a concubine, or even of a black ſlave.
Love is the leaſt motive for entering into a contract with a lawful wife, as ſhe is called, eſpecially among the great, nor does ſhe expect much of it; but it is the [55] number of ſlaves, the cloaths, the equipage, and figure the man makes in the world, which are the great in⯑ducements for a woman, or her friends, to ally herſelf to any family. If the wife is ſo unfortunate as to be in love with her huſband, ſhe is uſually very unhappy; for ſhe will frequently have the mortification of ſeeing him leave her bed for that of a ſlave, and perhaps for a com⯑mon ſtrumpet, and, in return for her paſſion, may poſſi⯑bly be preſented with the venereal diſeaſe; and if ſhe ſhews any reſentment, will probably ſee another wife introduced into the houſe, to govern in her ſtead. For if a man ſhould be diſcontented with his wife, after mar⯑riage, (which is ſometimes the caſe here as in other countries,) he is at liberty to divorce her; a man be⯑ing always, by the mahomedan law, enabled to put away his wife at diſcretion. This is performed by giving her every thing he had previous to the marriage, (which after her death goes to her children, if ſhe has any,) and by re-demanding the contract of his wife's relations. The ceremony of divorce is called by the Perſians Telaàk. If again, after the divorce, the huſband ſhould be in⯑clined to take his wife back, he is at liberty ſo to do, and this for three times ſucceſſively; and when it ſo hap⯑pens, the contract muſt be renewed each time; but, after the third time, he is expreſsly forbidden to re-marry the ſame woman; but it ſeldom happens that a man who is divorced from his wife, is inclined to take her back again; thoſe who do ſo, being in little eſtimation with their neighbours: and with reſpect to the number of [56] wives a man has, that perſon is moſt eſteemed who at⯑taches himſelf to one.
Contracts of marriage in Perſia, as well as in many other places in the eaſt, are often made between families at a very early period; and although conſummation does not take place till many years after, yet the woman contracted cannot divorce herſelf, or be abſolved from the contract, unleſs with the conſent of her betrothed huſband, except on forfeiture of a conſiderable ſum of money, the ſame alſo binding on the part of the man.
The uſual ſuggeſtions for a woman to obtain a di⯑vorce are, that her huſband is impotent, or ſpends too much of his time with his female ſlaves and concubines, and does not pay her attention ſufficient; in either of which caſes the magiſtrate will grant a divorce, and both parties are at liberty to marry elſewhere.
A widow is obliged to wait four months after the death of her huſband, before ſhe is permitted by law to marry again; but the concubine of a perſon deceaſed, may go to another as ſoon as ſhe pleaſes.
When the parents of a young man have determined upon marrying him, they look out amongſt their kindred and acquaintances for a ſuitable match; having ſuc⯑ceeded, the young man's father, mother, or ſiſter, aſ⯑ſemble a company of their friends, and go to the young [57] woman's houſe, and propoſe the match. If her father approves the propoſals, as a token of compliance, he orders ſweet-meats to be brought in, and the company at that time take their leave. Some days after, the fe⯑males of the man's family aſſemble at the houſe of the intended bride, when the terms of marriage are ſettled, and the cuſtomary preſents on the part of the bride⯑groom promiſed. Theſe, if the perſon be in middling circumſtances, generally conſiſt of two complete ſuits of apparel of the beſt kind, a ring, a looking-glaſs a ſmall ſum of money, about ten or twelve tomans, which ſum is called Mehr a Kawèèn, or the marriage-portion, it being given for the expreſs purpoſe of providing for the wife, in caſe of a divorce. There is alſo provided a quantity of houſehold furniture of all ſorts, as carpets, matts, bedding, kitchen-utenſils, &c. After this, a writing or contract is drawn up, in the preſence of and witneſſed by, the cadi or magiſtrate, or, in his abſence, by an akhund or prieſt, which is ſigned and ſealed, and depoſited in the hands of the bride's father. This ce⯑remony being finiſhed, the marriage, by the mahomedan law, is deemed perfect. But, prior to the contract, the perſon of the man is examined by the parents or friends of the woman, and that of the woman by the mother or other relations of the man. Nothing now remains, but to celebrate the wedding, which generally takes place the ſe⯑cond or third day after ſigning the contract. The night before the wedding, the friends and relations of the bride aſſemble at her houſe, attended by muſic, dancing girls, [58] and other ſigns of feſtivity. This night is diſtinguiſhed by the appellation of Sheb Hinna Bundee, or the night on which the hands and feet of the bride are ſtained with the herb of hinna, well known all over the Eaſt. Previous to the ceremony, a large quantity of this herb is ſent by the bridegroom to the houſe of the bride, and, on the day of ſtaining, ſhe is firſt conveyed to the bath, where, having bathed, ſhe is brought back to her own houſe, and her hands and feet are ſtained with hinna, and her eye-brows and forehead painted with the antimony powder called Surma. This being finiſhed, the remains of the herb are ſent back to the bridegroom, where the like operation is performed upon him by her friends. The wedding night being come, the friends of both parties, men and women, aſſemble at the houſe of the bride in order to convey her to her huſband. They are attended with all ſorts of muſic, ſingers, and dancing girls, and all are dreſſed in their ſmarteſt apparel, each of the women having on a veil of red ſilk. The preſents which the bridegroom has made are all put into trays' co⯑vered with red ſilk, and carried on men's ſhoulders. After waiting at the door for ſome time, the bride is brought forth, covered from head to foot in a veil of red ſilk or painted muſlin; a horſe is then preſented for her to mount, ſent by the bridegroom; and, when mounted, a large looking-glaſs, is held before her by one of the bridemaids all the way to the houſe of her huſband, as an admonition, that it is the laſt time ſhe will look into a glaſs as a virgin, being now about to enter into [59] the cares of the married ſtate. The proceſſion then ſets forward in the following order: Firſt, the muſic and dancing girls; next, the preſents on men's ſhoulders; then follow the relations and friends of the bridegroom, all ſhouting and making a great noiſe; next to theſe comes the bride, ſurrounded by all her female friends and relations, one of whom leads the horſe by the bridle. Being arrived at the houſe of her huſband, they are met at the door by his father and mother, and from thence conducted up ſtairs. The bride then enters the room, and the bridegroom, who is at the upper end, makes a low obeiſance and then advances, takes her in his arms and embraces her; ſoon after they retire to a private chamber, and, on their return to the company, it cauſes great rejoicing. All then ſit down to ſupper in ſeparate apartments, the men eating with the bridegroom in one room, and the women with the bride in another. The ſupper is prolonged to a late hour in the night, with cheerfulneſs and feſtive mirth; and the rejoicings continue eight or ten days.
The Armenians, who were originally of the Greek church, though now differing a little from it, are ſub⯑jects of Perſia, marry their children uſually in their in⯑fancy, to prevent their being carried into the harams of the great men; for either the Perſians are ſo juſt, as not to take any man's wife from him, or too nice to take women who have been in the poſſeſſion of another. But, though the parties are frequently contracted at four or five years of age, the marriage is ſeldom cele⯑brated [60] till they are eight or ten, and the bridegroom every year at Eaſter ſends the bride a fine veſt ſuitable to her rank; that is, the parents tranſact all theſe matters among themſelves, the conſent of the young people being aſked only for form ſake when they are brought to church.
On the day of marriage, the bridegroom being richly dreſſed, mounts his horſe, and, attended by his neareſt relations, comes to the houſe of the bride's father, when ſhe alſo gets on horſeback, being dreſſed in the fineſt ſilks, but covered with a veil, and accompanied by her friends and relations, with lighted torches in their hands, proceeds to the church. Being alighted from their horſes, the bride and bridegroom go up to the altar, where, ſtanding pretty cloſe together, face to face, the biſhop reſting his book upon their heads, reads the ſervice, and, having received their conſent, gives them his bleſſing, whereupon the drums and trumpets ſound, the muſic plays, and they return to the bridegroom's houſe in the ſame order as they came, unleſs they hear maſs, and receive the ſacrament, as they frequently do on theſe occaſions; for then the bride is carried back to her father's houſe, and the wedding is not conſummated till ſome days after. The gueſts are ſplendidly enter⯑tained on theſe occaſions as in other countries, only that the men and women eat and drink in ſeparate rooms. In the evening, the bride and bridegroom are conducted to the nuptial chamber, and the company retire after a [61] profuſion of roſe-water being thrown about, and a thouſand wiſhes for the happineſs of the new-married couple.
Some days after the wedding, the bridal portion is ſent to the huſband's houſe, conſiſting of fine cloaths, gold, ſilver, and jewels, according to the rank of the parties; ſome choice fruits and ſweet-meats are uſually added, all carried in fine boxes and cabinets, attended by ſuch muſic as the country affords.
There is ſtill another people in Perſia, who go under the name of chriſtians, but whoſe religion ſeems to be compoſed of chriſtianity, judaiſm, and mahomedaniſm. They are called chriſtians of St. John, and inhabit near the gulph of Perſia, in the province of Chuſiſtan, where it is computed there are not leſs than 20,000 families of them. Their marriages, if travellers do not impoſe upon us, have ſomething very particular in them; but as all who ſpeak of this people agree in their accounts, I will venture to give the relation as I find it. It ſeems, the prieſts and relations of the bridegroom go, in the firſt place, and demand of the bride whether ſhe be a virgin. If ſhe anſwers Yes, they make her ſwear to it; and not contented with this, ſhe undergoes an examination by the prieſt's wife. Afterwards the bride and bridegroom are brought to a river, where the prieſt baptizes them; then the bridegroom leads the bride home to his houſe, where, being ſeated cloſe together, the prieſt reads a long [62] ſervice upon the occaſion. He next takes a book of divination, and caſts lots to diſcover the happy hour for conſummation. The bridegroom having bedded his ſpouſe, goes with her to the biſhop, acknowledges that he is ſatisfied of his wife's virtue, and the biſhop, in con⯑ſequence, performs the remainder of the marriage cere⯑mony, putting rings on their fingers, and baptizing them again. But if the huſband will not vouch for the honour and virtue of his wife, the biſhop will have no concern in the celebration of the marriage, but leaves it to an inferior prieſt, and the woman loſes her repu⯑tation.
At the naming of children, among the Perſians, the following ceremony is obſerved. The third birth-day after the child is born, the friends of the lying-in woman aſſemble at her houſe, attended by [...] and dancing girls hired for the occaſion. After playing and dancing ſome time a mullah or prieſt is introduced, who, taking the child in his arms, demands of the mother what name ſhe chuſes the infant ſhould be called by: being told, he begins praying; and, after a ſhort [...], w [...]pers in the child's ears, telling it diſtinctly three times, and calling it by its name, to remember and be obedient to its father and mother, to venerate the Koran and the prophet, to abſtain from thoſe things that are unlawful, and practiſe thoſe things which are good and virtuous. Having repeated the mahomedan profeſſion of faith, he re-delivers the child to its mother: after which the [63] company are entertained with ſweet-meats and refreſh⯑ments, a part of which the females carry away with them in their pockets, firmly believing it will be the means of their having children themſelves.
The ceremony of the Sunnut, or circumciſion, is ge⯑nerally performed within 40 days from the birth of the child, as being the ſafeſt time; but it is unlawful if not performed before the boy is fourteen years old. The operation is performed by a barber with a razor, there being no ſurgeons in Perſia, after the Jewiſh ritual, and in the manner practiſed by the muſſulmen in India; and at ſuch times the parents of the child invite their friends to an entertainment, Sir John Chardin ſays, that in ſome parts of Perſia they circumciſe old women. With great men this ceremony is uncommonly ſplendid. Mr. Franklin tells us, he was an eye-witneſs of the rejoicings made by the inhabitants of Shirauz, in honour of the King of Perſia's ſon, who was circumciſed on the 27th of April, 1787.
On the 20th, great preparations having previouſly been made, the bazars, or covered market-places, were ſplendidly illuminated, particularly the grand ba⯑zar, which was adorned throughout with luſtres of party-coloured lamps, ſuſpended from the roof about half way down. The ſhops of the merchants, on each ſide, were dreſſed out in great finery, with ſilver paper, rich hangings, &c. the walls on each ſide, to a conſi⯑derable [64] height covered with tapeſtry, looking-glaſſes and many paintings, done in the Perſian ſtyle, moſt of them repreſenting the ancient kings of Perſia and India, in the different dreſſes of their reſpective countries, as well as deſigns taken from their admired poets. Bands of muſic and dancing women, were conſtantly perform⯑ing night and day, throughout the different bazars, on ſcaffoldings erected for that purpoſe; and the whole was a ſcene of feſtivity for ſeven days and as many nights. Among ſeveral ingenious things obſervable on this oc⯑caſion, the ſight preſented at the arſenal was moſt wor⯑thy of notice. In the center of this building, the ar⯑mourers had ſuſpended in the air a braſs-mortar of 800lb. by ſome hidden means, as nothing appeared to ſupport it either above or below, the only viſible thing being a number of coloured bottles ſticking to it, as if to keep it buoyant in the atmoſphere. I was told, how⯑ever, ſays Mr. Franklin, that it was effected by means of a wire paſſed from the roof of the place to the mouth of the mortar, but not being viſible to the ſpectators, it gave it a very ingenious effect. The decorations on this occaſion coſt the ſhop-keepers and tradeſmen conſi⯑derable ſums; as, beſides the illumination, they were obliged to make a handſome pieſhcuſh, or preſent, to the King and his ſon, who alſo, on this occaſion, gave a grand entertainment in the citadel, to which the princi⯑ple men in the city were invited; and the whole was con⯑cluded by a magnificent diſplay of fire-works.
[65]The funerals of the Perſians are conducted in a ſimilar manner to thoſe in other mahomedan countries. On the death of a muſſulman, the relations and friends of the deceaſed, being aſſembled, make loud lamentations over the corpſe. They are generally interred the evening of the day on which they die. They are always waſhed before they are buried. For this purpoſe there are re⯑ſervoirs; but the poorer ſort are commonly taken to the neareſt pond. Being waſhed, the body is wound up in a cotton cloth, on which are ſtamped ſeveral paſſages of the Koran, and it is thus carried to a place of interment, attended by ſome of the relations of the deceaſed, and a prieſt, ſinging ſome parts of the Koran, all the way to the grave. Should any muſſulman chance to meet the corpſe during the proceſſion, he is obliged, by the precepts of his religion, to run up to the bier, and offer his aſſiſtance to carry it, crying out, at the ſame time, Làh illah ill Lìllah! that is, "there is no God but God." After the interment, the relations of the deceaſed return home, and the women of the family make a mixture of wheat, honey, and ſpices, which they eat in memory of the deceaſed, ſending a part of it to their friends and acquaintance, that they alſo may pay him a like honour. This cuſtom ſeems to be derived from very great anti⯑quity; for we read in Homer, of ſacrifices and libations being frequently made to the memory of departed ſouls.
CHAP. VII. Of their Trade and Manufactures.
[66]MANUFACTURES and trade are, at preſent, greatly decayed in Perſia, owing to the long civil wars; but, as the Perſians are very ingenious, induſtrious, and of quick capacities, there is little doubt, but if a regular and permanent government was once again to be eſtabliſhed, they would flouriſh as other nations do. They work in fillagree and ivory remarkably well, and are good turners. At Shirauz, they have a glaſs manu⯑factory, where they caſt great quantities, and convey it to all parts of Perſia. They have neither iron, braſs, nor pewter, in their kitchen-furniture; moſt of their utenſils, being copper, tinned, and their braziers and tin-men are good workmen.
Kom is remarkable for excellent ſword-blades, and their armourers damaſk them, as well as any European. Their fire-arms are but ill contrived; and the locks are made by Europeans, the Perſians not having in⯑genuity ſufficient to make theſe, any more than clocks, and watches, which they purchaſe from other countries; but all ſorts of cutlery goods, they are expert in. The [67] art of making looking-glaſſes they do not underſtand, but uſe little convex ſteel mirrors, which, owing to the dryneſs of the air, ſeldom ruſt or grow dull. As the uſe of the bow, is what they value themſelves much upon, no country produces better. They are made of wood and horn, bound round with ſinews, and painted as fine as poſſible. The bowſtring is made of twiſted ſilk, the ſize of a gooſe-quill, and their quivers are leather, worked with ſilk or embroidered.
Embroidery they excel in, both in gold and ſilver, either on cloth, ſilk, or leather; they almoſt cover their ſaddles and houſings with it; and their ſtitching of leather is beyond any thing we can do. They ride with their ſtirrups ſhort, and where we uſe braſſes about the trap⯑pings of our horſes, their men of rank have gold.
Silks are the principal manufacture of the country, wrought and unwrought; the wrought are taffeties, tab⯑bies, ſatins and ſilk mixed with cotton, or camels and goats hair; brocades, and gold tiſſue. Of brocades they have a hundred ſorts, ſome of them the richeſt any where met with; and the gold velvet here wrought is admirable. All their rich ſtuffs are very durable. The gold and ſilver does not wear off or tarniſh whilſt the ſtuff laſts, but keeps its colour and brightneſs. The fineſt looms for theſe ſtuffs are at Iſpahan, Caſhan, and Yeſd. The Turkey carpets which we have in England, [68] and the Turkey leather are both made in Perſia, but called Turkey, becauſe they are brought to us through that country. Shagreen comes alſo from Perſia, which, Chardin ſays, is made of the ſkin of an aſs's rump. Camel⯑hair ſtuffs are made in Carmenia. Theſe are as ſoft and ſmooth, and almoſt as fine as thoſe made of beaver wool, but are not very ſtrong. There is ſome calicoe here, which they figure and dye, but they are not equal to the India callicoes.
Earthen-ware is another manufacture in which the Perſians excel, much beyond the Dutch. Some ſay it is equal to China. Their gold wire-drawers and thread-twiſters are capital in their way. Chardin ſays, they will draw a dram weight of gold into a wire 300 yards long. Their dying is preferable to any thing of the kind in Europe; but this is not ſo much aſcribed to the artiſt as the air; which being, as I have obſerved, un⯑commonly dry and clear, gives a brightneſs to the colours and fixes them.
Perſian taylors work very neatly; and as the men's cloaths are made of the richeſt flowered and brocaded ſilks, which they make to fit ſo very exact as to do them great credit their ſewing is incomparably beyond any thing we can boaſt of. They work flowers alſo upon their carpets, cuſhions, and window-curtains ſo well, that they ſeem as if painted. With the taylors, we muſt not forget to mention their barbers, who are no leſs ex⯑cellent [69] in their way, for they will ſhave the head almoſt at half-a-dozen ſtrokes, and have ſo light a hand, that you ſcarce feel them. They uſe only cold water and hold no baſon under the chin; but have their water in a cup like a tea-cup. After they ſhaved a man, they cut the nails of his feet and hands with a little iron in⯑ſtrument like a bodkin, ſharp at the end; which done they rub and chafe his fleſh and ſtretch his arms, a re⯑freſhment which is as agreeable to Europeans as the na⯑tives in this hot country.
The goldſmiths in Perſia are bunglers, they do beſt in filligree work; they alſo make ſtone-rings, and en⯑grave tolerably. Watches and clock-work they are to⯑tally ignorant of, or any thing which requires ſprings.
Paper is made of rags, ſilk and cotton; is very thin, ſmooth, and will bear but on one ſide. It is not ſo white as ours, nor in any reſpect comparable to it. Their ink is made of galls, vitriol, the rind of the pomegranate, with burnt rice powdered, which being made into a cake, is diſſolved in gum. Inſtead of quills they uſe a reed, ſomewhat larger than a quill; their characters are Arabic. The mahomedans conſider paper as ſacred, think it wrong in any one to burn or tear it, or put it to any improper uſe: for ſay they, the name of God may be written on it, and it would be impious to prophane it; if it be not written on, it is deſigned, they ſay, for writing matters on, which concern religion, the laws [70] either divine and human, and other venerable purpoſes, and ought not to be put to common uſe.—They have not the art of printing, all their books are manu⯑ſcript; and writing is conſidered as a liberal art. In their rings they wear agates, which ſerve for ſeals, and on which is often engraved a verſe from the Koran.
Trade, in Perſia, is generally carried on by brokers and ſtock-jobbers, who are a very cunning, ſubtle gene⯑neration. After they have agreed at the ſeller's houſe, they aſcertain the price, with their fingers, putting their hands under a cloth. The end of the finger ſtands for one, the bent finger for five, and the ſtrait for ten, the hand open for a hundred; and, if ſhut, a thouſand: during this reckoning, they carry ſo ſteady a counte⯑nance as to render it impoſſible for a ſtranger to gather any thing from it. The mahomedans, though poſſeſſed of the governing part of the country, are not the great⯑eſt foreign traders. The Armenians engage the Euro⯑pean trade; for the religion of the mahomedan Perſians forbids them to touch the food, or even the perſons, of thoſe whom they look upon to be polluted. Govern⯑ment find themſelves under a neceſſity to protect and encourage their chriſtian ſubjects; for they value their foreign trade, and the revenue attendant on it; of courſe, ſuffer them to live happy and eaſy. Towards Georgia are many chriſtians; and the great towns of Julpha and Iſpahan are inhabited altogether by chriſ⯑tians. But of all nations, the Ruſſians are moſt advan⯑tageouſly [71] ſituated to trade with Perſia, the inteſtine broils of that country have often contributed to its advantage; for, beſides cloth and other European goods, the Ruſ⯑ſians export red leather, furs, &c. and receive, in return, raw-ſilk. Hence aroſe their jealouſy of the Britiſh traders; for the Ruſſian merchants, particularly thoſe of Moſcow, and the trading towns on the Wolga, no ſooner ob⯑ſerved that the Perſian markets were glutted with European goods, by the Ruſſian company of England, than they began to murmur, reſolving to make remon⯑ſtrances to the Court on the ſubject. The Armenians ex⯑tended their trade to the north of Perſia, far beyond the Ruſſians, for, by means of their credit in Holland, joined to their own capitals, they employed in commerce about 100,000l. This ſtock was even inſufficient to ſup⯑port them; for the exceſſive glut of the market in Ghilan, and the terrible oppreſſion of the Perſian go⯑vernment, ſtopped the circulation of their trade, and conſequently ſunk their credit in Holland. At length, they were all conſtrained to abandon Perſia, and, in 1745, they retired to Aſtrachan, to wait with their effects, till there ſhould be a fair opportunity of re⯑turning thither. Whilſt the Ruſſia company were in ſecurity, they could not be inſenſible of the benefits of buying raw-ſilk of the peaſants of Ghilan, but ad⯑vantages may be over-rated, and ceaſe to be ſuch, when attended with vexations and inconvenience, like thoſe which the Caſpian traders experienced.—It was not, however, the leſs ungrateful to obſerve the [72] Armenians, a people in themſelves deſpicable, and of no conſequence to Ruſſia, in competition with the Britiſh nation, ſupported and protected in this trade, when meaſures were ſo apparently taken to wreſt it from the Engliſh.—The Ruſſians do indeed alledge, that many of theſe Armenians are ſubjects of their country, and it is true in general, that ſuch of them as are engaged in the Caſpian trade do put themſelves under the protection of that empire. Theſe people are educated in all the ſer⯑vilities of Aſia; and underſtanding how to accommodate themſelves to indignities, which the genius of a free nation will hardly ſubmit to, are, in ſome meaſure, the better qualified to carry on a commerce through foreign dominions. The commencement of our traffic with Perſia happened in 1561, in the third year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and factories were firſt eſtabliſhed at Shirvan. In 1567, the Turks conquered the weſtern coaſts of the Caſpian Sea, and in great meaſure prevent⯑ed the advancement of that commerce, which the mer⯑chants naturally flattered themſelves would happen, in conſequence of a favourable decree, obtained from Ab⯑dallah Khan, then King of Shirvan and Hyrcania, which laſt is now called Ghilan. Several Engliſh mer⯑chants were employed in this traffic, of whom, one Thomas Alcocke was murdered in Perſia. Afterwards, Chriſtopher Burrough went into Perſia in 1579, and returned home in 1581. He built a veſſel on the Wol⯑ga, at Niezaro-Vogorode in which he tranſported ſe⯑veral kinds of merchandiſe as far as Baku. At Nie⯑zabad [73] his veſſel was ſtranded, and great part of his cargo loſt. At Derbend, he ſold a part of his goods, to the Turks, and bought another veſſel to bring home his returns of raw ſilk; but either through want of experience, or conſtrained by neceſſity, he came to Ruſſia, ſo late as the month of November, which occaſioned his ſhip to be cut to pieces by the ice; the cargo, however, was ſaved in a boat, which floating out to ſea, with the ice, and being in great danger of periſhing, was, at length, frozen up; the crew left their boat, and the cargo, and went in ſearch of aſſiſtance; but loſing their way, their lives were much endangered by hunger, as well as by a ſhower of arrows, from a flying party of Najai Tartars. At laſt, they had the good fortune, to bring their car⯑go ſafe to Aſtrachan, and thus ended the Britiſh, Caſ⯑pian commerce.
Occaſional voyages have ſince been made by Britiſh ſubjects, under the Ruſſian protection, in the cloſe of the laſt century, but not with any view of eſtabliſhing trade.—I ſhall finiſh this ſhort view of the trade of Perſia, by giving a general idea, of the different kinds of European goods, which the Ruſſians and Armenians now ſend into the northern provinces of that kingdom. The chief demand, next to Dutch cloth, is for Britiſh woollens, Gloceſter and ordinary Yorkſhire cloths; like⯑wiſe, indigo, cochineal, and, in good times, rick ſilks, [74] gold and ſilver lace, velvets and other rich manufac⯑tures.
With regard to the quantity of goods imported by the Perſians over the Caſpian ſea, whilſt the port of Gombroon, was open to the ſeveral nations of Eu⯑rope; the Caſpian traders, could but ill form an idea, of the general conſumption in that kingdom. The Ruſſian company, was the mere ſanguine in it's expectations, from a knowledge, that in the begin⯑ning of this century, the factors of the Eaſt-India company, had extended their trade as far as Tauris on the Weſtern-coaſt of the Caſpian, where they ſold great quantities of the woollen manufactures of Great-Britain; but when the Britiſh factors of Ghilan, whoſe ſituation was now ſo much more advantageous, would have made an experiment of the like nature, they diſcovered that city, and it's confines, in ſo ruinous a ſtate, as blaſted their hopes of doing any buſineſs in thoſe quarters.
When Perſia enjoyed repoſe, the agent of the Eaſt-India company of England lived in ſplendor, the re⯑gal government being held in great veneration, in that empire; he acted, as immediately under the crown of England; and from thence derived an in⯑fluence, which he could not otherwiſe have poſſeſſed; his pompous manner of living, had ſome good effects, but the expence was too conſiderable, to be long grate⯑ful to the company.
[75]The advantages which the Eaſt-India company of England, enjoyed beyond the Ruſſia company, were ſuch, as will hardly admit of a compariſon, nor in⯑deed, is it material to my preſent purpoſe. I ſhall paſs over in ſilence, the trade of Great-Britain, to the gulph of Perſia, as alſo that between Perſia and India; obſerving only, that after the Portugueſe had ſettled themſelves in the Eaſt-Indies, they took the iſland of Ormu, and, being maſters of the ſea, carried on the trade between thoſe countries.
CHAP. XLVIII. Of their Army and Navy.
THE ſtanding forces of Perſia, were never fixed at any determinate number, but were computed in the reign of Nadir, at 200,000 men, beſides attendants; the pay given to ſoldiers, was about 100 crowns, a year, one with another, beſides the allowance, which chiefly con⯑ſiſted of rice; but the dearneſs of proviſion, and the [76] expenſive manner of living in camp, rendered this large pay, abſolutely neceeſſary. It has been obſerved that ſoldiers generally fight beſt, when they have ſome⯑thing to loſe, if their wealth does not involve them in effeminacy. Alexander encouraged the Macedonians, by repreſenting the Perſian riches, as an object of plunder, and conſequently as a motive to exert them⯑ſelves; but under Nadir, we do not find that any of their enemies, conſidered the valuable effects of the Perſian ſoldiery in that light. This method ſerved alſo, to keep them dependant, by their being obliged to ſpend their money in articles of vanity. The late king of Portugal, John I. humbled his nobility by in⯑dulging their pride; and, other Chriſtian princes have done the ſame by their ſubjects, with great ſucceſs. The riches of a Shah's camp, conſiſt in horſe-furniture, Nadir (ſays Hanway,) had four complete ſets, one mounted with pearls, another with rubies, a third with emeralds, and the laſt with diamonds, moſt of which were of ſo prodigious a ſize, as hardly to merit be⯑lief, for many of them appeared as large as a pid⯑geon's egg. Franklin ſpeaks, of a famous jewel, of Nadir Shah's, called Dereau Nour, which has been carried out of Perſia, by ſome Armenian merchants, and ſold to the Empreſs of Ruſſia, for eighty thou⯑ſand pounds. Beautiful as their diamonds are, their luſtre is greatly loſt, by the barbarous manner in which they are ſet. Some of them are bored through, after [77] the manner of the Aſiatics, who often ſpoil their pre⯑cious ſtones by this method.
It is uſual with the Perſian kings, to encourage the army, in the uſe of coſtly furniture. The officers and even ſoldiers of rank, have the bridles of their horſes mounted with ſilver, with a mane-piece of plate and an ornamental chain; likewiſe their ſword, belts, and other accoutrements, are mounted with the ſame metal. The handles of their battle-axes, are ſtudded, or covered with thin ſilver-plates, and in their ſaſhes about their waiſt, they wear a knife, the handle and caſe of which, is covered with ſilver, but the work⯑manſhip is bad. Officers and perſons of diſtinction, are obliged to wear gold-caſed knives, and ſome of the great men, have ſilver ſtirrups. Nadir particularly encouraged expenſive ornaments among the ſoldiers, he had the policy to oblige ſome by preſents, which led to a general vanity throughout his army, for all were deſirous of coſtly trappings, and readily expen⯑ed their money, to gain the good opinion of their commander.
The Perſian troops not being incumbered with bag⯑bage, or artillery, make prodigious ſwift marches, and fall upon the enemy in their camp, with incredible fury, when they leaſt ſuſpect ſuch a viſit. At other times, they will cut off their proviſions, and turn [78] the waters from their uſual courſe; and having har⯑raſſed them through a deſart country, attack them when they are fatigued and weary. When an enemy makes head againſt them, they will fly, till they have got an advantageous ground, and then return, and charge again. Like the Parthians, they ſhoot more arrows in their retreat, than when they advance. They never throw intrenchments round their camps, but chuſe a mountain or difficult paſs, for that purpoſe; but in ſieges they intrench, and uſually take a place by under⯑mining it; and it is thought no people, underſtand mining or ſubterraneous works better than the Perſians.
In their camps, a general regularity is obſerved, as far as is agreeable to the ſize and ſhape of the ground; it being a rule conſtantly purſued, to place the tents of certain principal miniſters, and officers in the front, or to the right or left of the Shah's quar⯑ters, that ſome of them may be always near him. The circuit of the quarter allotted to the Shah's own tents is very large; the entrance conſiſts, on one ſide, of a line of uniform tents, ſerving for guard-rooms; and on the other, of the tents, in which the affairs of chancery, and the like public concerns, are tranſacted. About 200 yards beyond this avenue, is the pavillion, in which the Shan uſually ſits to give audience, and tranſact buſineſs: it is generally oblong, ſupported by three poles with gilded balls at the top, the cover⯑ing [79] of a cotton cloth, of a brick-colour, and the lining of clouded ſilk; the floor covered either with car⯑pet or cloths, and the body of the pavillion, having on each ſide a kind of alley, through which the at⯑tendants walk round. Sometimes the Shah ſits upon a large ſopha or chair, croſs-legg'd, and ſometimes on the floor. The hind-part of his tent, is divided into ſmall apartments, where the officers, who do not appear in his Majeſty's preſence, attend. There is nothing ſumptuous in this pavilion, the front of which is always open, even in the worſt of weather; when it is extremely cold, ſeveral pots of lighted charcoal, are placed in the middle. At a conſiderable diſtance be⯑hind, are placed the. Shah's private tents, to ſome of which he retires at his meals; and in order to ren⯑der them warm, there are Indian pannels, which are occaſionally ſet up; but to theſe he only admitts his ſecret emiſſaries, when they have any remarkable in⯑telligence to communicate. Contiguous to theſe, are the tents of the Shah's ladies, which differ from the others, in having ſeveral curtains, that form ſeparate apartments, one without another. The boundaries of the Shah's quarters, are, generally, occupied by his eunuchs, and female ſlaves, and almoſt this whole circuit, par⯑ticularly towards the reſidence of the women, are ſur⯑rounded by a ſtrong fence of net-work, round which the night-guard patroles, and ſeverely puniſhes all in⯑truders. As there are no lights in theſe parts, nor any tents near them, it frequently happens that peo⯑ple [80] who coming to the camp by night, ignorantly ſtraggle thither, are ſure to be ill-treated, when that happens. None but officers in immediate waiting, are permitted to enter the royal pavilion. The officers of ſtate and people in buſineſs, ſtand in the open air, in all wea⯑thers, forming a ſemi-circle in front of the tent. If they are brought to anſwer for their conduct, they are held under the arm, by a proper officer to pre⯑vent their eſcape, or committing any other acts of violence. The ſame ceremony is obſerved towards foreign embaſſadors, and great men, under pretence of reſpect; but, in truth, it is done to prevent any accident, or attempt being made on the Shah's life. The tents of perſons of diſtinction, are, for the moſt part, oblong, and are ſupported by three poles, the outſide of coarſe, cotton cloth, which is glazed, to prevent the rain from penetrating; the inſide, lined with woollen or ſilk, according to the different ſeaſons of the year, and the circumſtances of the owner. The ground is ſpread, with a thick cotton cloth, or matt, and over that is laid a carpet, or woollen, printed cloth, of ſeveral colours, and of Britiſh manufacture; beſides this, the floor is laid with felts, which ſupply the place of bedſteads and feather-beds, though ſome have their beds raiſed above the ground, to avoid the damps. The top and ſides of the tents of great officers, are ſometimes lined with pannels, on which flowers, and a variety of figures [81] are wrought. The back is appropriated for women, but ſuch grandees as have ſeveral women, place a ſet of tents at a diſtance from their own, which are ſur⯑rounded with cotton-cloths, to prevent their being ſeen. The part of the camp call'd the camp market, begins at the end of the ſquare, fronting the guard-room, and is near half a mile long; it conſiſts of tents on each ſide, like a ſtreet, running as direct as the nature of the ground will admit, the tents are filled with proviſions, apparel, horſe-furniture and other neceſſaries brought for ſale, together with a vaſt property ariſing from the daily con⯑fiſcations of the Shah. The care of the market is com⯑mitted to an officer, who rides up and down, to keep order, and when any diſputes ariſe, they are brought be⯑fore the Deroga Bazar or ſuperintendant of the market, who acquires a conſiderable income from rents, fees, preſents and extortions. The ſhop-keepers are little bet⯑ter than common ſutlers; but ſuch as carry on great buſineſs, are under the protection of the principal cour⯑tiers, who are the grand dealers in flower of rice, of which there is always a great conſumption: and as theſe courtiers have frequently ſupernumerary ſervants, camels and mules, they ſend them to the diſtant provinces that produce rice, which they bring to the camp for ſale and make great profits. But if the ſhop-keepers, or traders, interfere with them in theſe branches of trade, they gene⯑rally mark them for deſtruction. Nadir us'd frequently to enquire the price of neceſſaries, reduc'd them as he thought proper, and fin'd the market-people upon every [82] tranſgreſſion, but the moſt notorious inſtance of injuſtice, to ſhop-keepers was his obliging them, when his tents and their appurtenances were grown old, to take them and pay him the value of new ones.
We having had frequent occaſion to mention this won⯑derful tyrant, Nadir, the reader, will not be diſpleaſed, to have a ſlight ſketch of his character, and remarkable exploits, particularly as he has been conſidered by all the world, as a ſecond Alexander: it will ſerve to en⯑liven and relieve the mind from the tediouſneſs of dry deſcription and give a further inſight into his military conduct
To [...]hmas Kouli Khan, or as he afterwards called him⯑ſelf, Nadir Shah, was born in the year 1687, at a village, or more probably in a tent, a few days jour⯑ney to the ſouth eaſt of Meſched, not far from Kaelat. He was deſcended from the Affhars, a tribe of Tar⯑tars, ſubject to Perſia, that live by huſbandry, and ſupply the Perſians with horſes and cattle. Nadir's father earned his bread, by making caps, and ſheep-ſkin coats, which is the apparel of the loweſt order of common people in Perſia. Nadir was bred to no other employment than that of a ſhepherd, and being only thirteen years of age, when his father died, was left in ſo poor a condition, that he was obliged to gather ſticks in woods, for the ſupport of himſelf, [83] and mother, and carry them to market, on an aſs and a camel, which were his only patrimony.
It is recorded of him, that when he returned, in triumph, from his conqueſt of India, he chanced to paſs the place of his nativity, where he made a ſet ſpeech to his chief captains, and particularly men⯑tioned his father's camel, concluding to this effect, ‘You now ſee to what a height, it has pleaſed the Almighty, to exalt me; from hence learn not to deſpiſe men of low eſtate.’ When he was ſeven⯑teen or eight [...]en years of age, the Ouſbec or Uſbec Tartars, made an invaſion into Khoraſan, or Choraſſan; they put many of the inhabitants to the ſword, and reduced others to ſlavery; among the laſt, Nadir Kouli and his mother: ſhe died in captivity, but he made his eſcape, in 1708, and returned to Choraſſan. From this time we hear no more of him, 'till, with ſome of his companions, he ſtole a flock of ſheep; the mo⯑ney which this produced, enabled him to retire to the mountains; he, however, did not continue the profeſ⯑ſion of a robber, but entered into the ſervice of a Bey or lord, by whom he was employed as a courier, and was once ſent, with diſpatches of importance, to the Perſian court of Iſpahan, in company with another courier. Whether Nadir was ambitious, of being the ſole carrier of theſe diſpatches, or whether his fellow-courier did not travel faſt enough, or for what other ſecret reaſon, it is unknown, but he killed him. After [84] his arrival at Iſpahan, he told his ſtory ſo well, as to procure admittance to the Miniſters, of Shah Sul⯑tan Huſſein, to whom he aſſigned ſuch plauſible reaſons for his conduct on the road, that he was not only ac⯑quitted, but received preſents, and was ſent back with anſwers, to the letters he had brought. His maſter received him with ſuch a countenance, as gave rea⯑ſon to ſuſpect he meditated his deſtruction. Nadir perceived it, and reſolved to kill him alſo, and he was the more induced to this, from a violent paſſion he had conceived for his daughter, whom he had de⯑manded in marriage, but was refuſed. After the murder was perpetrated, he took the lady away, and retired to the mountains. The effect of this enterprize, was the birth of Riza Kouli Myrza, whoſe genius and diſpoſition, ſo much reſembled his father's. This ac⯑tion acquired him the reputation of courage, and be⯑ing joined by ſome of the domeſtics of his late maſter, he became a robber, and continued ſo for ſome time, at length, he offered his ſervices to Babulu Khan, go⯑vernor of Choraſſan, by whom he was accepted, in the capacity of gentleman-uſher.
It may appear ſtrange, that the chief of a gang of robbers, ſhould have an honourable office beſtowed on him, by the governor of a province; but when it is conſidered, that perſonal courage, was the greateſt re⯑commendation, and more prevalent, than virtue, or any polite accompliſhments; it may ſomewhat reconcile the [85] conduct of the governor of Choraſſan. In 1717, the diſtreſſes of Perſia began to increaſe, and he had not been long in the ſervice of Babulu Khan, before the command of an army was given him, to proceed againſt the Tartars, who were making vaſt inroads on the frontiers of Choraſſan; many of the officers re⯑fuſed to ſerve under their new general, and their places were filled by thoſe whom Nadir approved of.
Nadir was ſucceſsful in his expedition, and elated with victory, returned, in triumph, to Meſched, where he was received with joy. The fire of his ambition blazed, and he demanded to be confirmed in his office of general, under the command of Babulu Khan: who aſſured him he would write to the court, in his favour, and that nothing ſhould be wanting on his part, to reward his merit. Whether Babulu Khan deceived him, or whe⯑ther the weak adminiſtration of Shah ſultan Huſſein evaded the promotion of Nadir, is uncertain, but he retired from Meſched with chagrin, and ſought new adventures, after having been beaten, on the ſoles of his feet, by order of the Khan, for abuſing the go⯑vernor; declaring it his opinion, that he had not acted as a man of honour. Nadir was again turned looſe into the world, and ſought to retrieve his fortunes, and to obtain revenge; but we ſhall paſs over the various and many wonderful viciſſitudes of his life, and give only his general character, and a few of his tranſactions, after he was created king.
On the 11th of March, 1736, under the name of Nadir Shah, the people paid him homage, and he accepted the crown, with an air of dignity, mixed with arrogance. An Armenian patriarch, performed part of the ceremony, but the plume and diadem, he changed from the left ſide, to the right, to ſhew, that to his own arm only, he was indebted for his exal⯑tation. This inſtrument of divine wrath, now accom⯑pliſhed his end, and reached a point which Caeſar could not obtain, though in valour, generoſity and ſtrength of mind, this celebrated Roman was not inferior to the Perſian uſurper; yet he excelled him in learning politeneſs and humanity, to which Nadir had never any pretenſions.
[88] Cromwel was baffled in many of his attempts, and neither, by ſkill or valor, could he ſucceed. Rome, though corrupt in the extreme, and ripe for a change of that form of government, by which ſhe had ar⯑rived at ſo high a pitch of glory, had yet ſome honeſt ſpirits, who thought the killing of a tyrant warrantable, or at leaſt not ſo great an evil as ſlavery. In Eng⯑land there were numbers, whoſe principles were un⯑tainted, and who ſaw the error committed, in attempting to change the monarchy, into a republican govern⯑ment; but in Perſia, ignorance, prevailed with corrup⯑tion of manners, and prepared the necks of the peo⯑ple, for the yoke, to which they then ſubmitted; and in a few years after, they ſaw pyramids of human heads erected on the ſpot, where they choſe their king. (See the plate, Perſians.
Nadir, being at the ſummit of his glory and ambition, tempered the natural fierceneſs of his diſpoſition, with ſome acts, of munificence; he entertained the people, and among other amuſements, was that of ſhooting an arrow at a gold plate, which was fixed on a lofty pole; thoſe who ſhot down the mark, were to receive it for their ſkill, together with a coat of honour. The motto he choſe for his ſeal was this, "As the jewel was fallen out of the king of fame and glory, ſo God has reſtored it in the name of Nadir." the coins ſtruck, had theſe inſcriptions, "Nadir king of kings and glory of the age," another was, "Coins proclaim throughout the earth, the reign of Nadir, [89] the king who conquers the world."
Being now at the height of his ambition, Nadir thought of nothing but to enrich himſelf; accordingly he prepared for an expedition againſt India; his ſucceſs was rapid, like Caezar, he came, he ſaw and conquered; victory now ſeemed to court the ambitious Nadir, and elate with the hope of giving laws to that vaſt empire, he affected a more than common ſtate, obſerved a ſtrict admi⯑niſtration of juſtice, and attended regularly to buſineſs; kept people to proclaim his victories, and a conſider⯑able number of young men, with ſtandards of red ſilk, were ordered to attend on particular occaſions. The preparations to oppoſe his progreſs at the court of the Mogul, ſeemed to give him no concern; on the contrary, he prepared himſelf, to receive homage from the Indian lords. Having given battle to the Indian forces, and ſubdued them, he ſent a letter to their general, ſaying that he knew the Mogul's trea⯑ſure, and added, "I had intended to put your em⯑peror and his troops to the ſword, but I will favour them; go and tell him to come to me, and we will make up our quarrel in a convenient manner." Mahomed Shah, the Indian king, was conducted to his tent, and placed by his left ſide; he then ad⯑dreſſed him, ſaying, that riches were his chief object, he wiſhed not deprive him of his empire, and aſſur⯑ed him that his life ſhould be ſecure; that after he had received the ſubſidy he demanded, and which [90] muſt be paid, he would leave him in quiet poſſeſſion of his dominions. Mahomed Shah heard his determi⯑nation, with ſorrow and confuſion; for language ſo foreign to a court, could not but touch the heart of a king, whoſe weakneſs did not amount to inſen⯑ſibility. Nadir had nothing to fear from his military power, for his own army amounted to near one hun⯑hundred and ſixty thouſand men; he ſuffered him therefore to retire to his own camp. Mahomed Shah gave orders for the dead bodies of his ſoldiers, which were ſpread for near twelve miles, to be interred; and at the ſame time, gave up the military cheſt to Na⯑dir, with all it's treaſures. Nadir Shah, like Alexander, was victorious wherever he went; the Indians gave way at his approach, and quietly ſubmitted, a prey to his unbounded avarice. He marched his troops through all their chief cities, where after the manner of the Eaſt, every houſe and ſhop was ſhut; not a ſoul appeared in the ſtreets, but a mournful ſilence every where prevailed, as if it preſaged ſome dreadful calamity. If the unhappy Indian ventured to de⯑fend himſelf, he was inſtantly killed, or in torture ſuffered to linger, with the loſs of his noſe and cars. So barbarous was Nadir, that the people often went in a body, and, in tears of anguiſh and diſ⯑treſs, proſtrated themſelves and begg'd for bread. The inhabitants of any conſideration, were obliged to de⯑clare under their hand-writing, what money and ef⯑fects they were poſſeſſed, of, and if they concealed any [91] thing, they were puniſhed with the utmoſt ſeverity. Nadir aimed the ſhaft at all, and millions felt the wounds he inflicted; amidſt the din of war, all ſenſe of humanity was confounded, and every noble ſenti⯑ment, yielded to his inſatiable thirſt of accumulating riches. Nadir, in imitating the celebrated Macedonian here, forgot his virtues; like him, he was the idol of his ſoldiers, until his cruelties became too enormous, but he never poſſeſſed the generoſity of Alexander; where the one was beloved, the other was feared, and where compaſſion is due to the memory of Alexan⯑der, Nadir's can only excite our hatred and raiſe our indignation. The natural greatneſs of mind in men, born to empire, ſeems to find no object adequate to it, except in conqueſt, but, to lead to true great⯑neſs, the mind ſhould be cultivated by an enlightened education, which Nadir never experienced; and even if he had, his heart was by nature, too depraved, to reach the ſummit of perfect heroiſm.
His cruelty was extreme, and his avarice, no leſs ſo; for, according to Hanway, he took from the In⯑dians, eighty ſeven millions, five hundred thouſand pounds, of Engliſh money; of which ſum, ſeven mil⯑million, five hundred thouſand pound, was in gold and ſilver, the remainder in the plate, rich manufac⯑tures, &c. of the great Mogul and the Indian lords. Cruelty was a kind of diverſion to Nadir, and was excited by his avarice, and jealouſy of his own ſecu⯑rity, as well as a habit of inſenſibility: yet, he was [92] remarkable for his love of women, and in India he cauſed the bellies of eighty ſoldiers, to be ripped open, for no other crime, than being preſent, when one of their comrades, forced an Indian woman. He is ſaid to have had a virgin brought to his bed, every night, for ſome years before his death, but contented him⯑ſelf, at the cloſe of his life, with thirty-three. In his wars in Turkey, he often carried his ſeraglio with him. No king ever inflicted puniſhments in a grea⯑ter variety, or with circumſtances, more ſtudied or reverſed than Nadir; they are too ſhocking and nu⯑merous to relate, but an inſtance or two may not be unacceptable. Two perſons of diſtinction wrote to him ſeveral times, complaining of each other, he ſent for them to the camp, and pronounced them both raſcals. ‘And ſince, ſaid he, you are ſo fond of troubling me with epiſtles, I will ſpoil your ſport;’ and accordingly he ordered their eyes to be put out. His wantonneſs in cruelty was not leſs apparent, when he ordered a man's teeth to be pulled out, for no other reaſon, than their being buck-teeth. But amidſt all his cruelty, he ſtill could feel, and his ſa⯑vage ferocity could yield to the dictates of nature; for when his ſon, Riza Kouli, attempted his life, and told him to his face, he was a tyrant, and ought to die, and that the moſt he could do, was to kill him, for an attempt upon his life; the afflicted Nadir in⯑treated him to think of his crime, and aſk pardon. ‘Conſider, ſays he, I am your general, your ſove⯑reign, your friend, your father; conſider the duty [93] you owe me, in theſe ſeveral relations; reflect, on the ſmall acknowledgements which I require of you; you are in my power, but I would not have you periſh; live, be happy, and a king, whenever Providence ſhall take me from the earth.’ He then employed his principal officers, to perſuade his ſon to repentance, but he remained inflexible; and ſaid, he had done no wrong, in attempting his father's life. Nadir being informed of his obſtinacy, between rage and tenderneſs, ſaid, ‘I will not take away your life, but I will make you an example, to all the princes of the earth. I will cut out your eyes.’— Riza Kouli, with a fierceneſs peculiar to himſelf, re⯑plied, "Cut them out, and put them into—." The indecent mention of a woman of honour and diſtinction, is no leſs diſreſpectful in Perſia, than in the polite parts of Europe; conſequently, it is the higheſt indignity, to mention, in groſs terms, the fa⯑vourite wife of a king; and Riza Kouli's expreſſion was the moſt inſulting he could uſe.
A ſimilar puniſhment, was likewiſe, inflicted on the ſoldier, whom Riza Kouli employed, to kill his fa⯑ther: when he was at the paſs, where Alexander pur⯑ſued Beſſus, the Bactrian traitor, he was wounded in the hand, and would have been aſſaſſinated, but for the intrepidity of the eunuchs round him; the ſol⯑dier made his eſcape, and was not taken, till above a year after the fact; when ſeized, he was led to the camp, [94] and confeſſed what he had done. Nadir, ſaid to him ‘You are a very brave fellow, but to prevent your taking ſuch good aim again, you muſt loſe your eyes.’ Though neceſſity obliged Nadir, to de⯑prive his darling ſon of his ſight, he lamented at paſſing ſo harſh a ſentence, repugnant to his ſenti⯑ments of affection, and with a mixture of paternal tenderneſs, admired his genius, and intrepidity, and hoped to have preſerved him, to continue the diadem in his family; hut finding him ſtill unſhaken, he never after permitted him to have any women, nor would he truſt him, in any place, but under his own eye. As he grew old, his avarice and cruelty ſeemed to vie with each other, for at Iſpahan, he committed barbarities, beyond any of the former years of his reign.
This ancient city, which the civil wars had nearly reduced to ruin, he ſeemed determined to complete; he made heavy exactions, put numbers of the in⯑habitants, to death, and burnt many of the Indian and Armenian merchants alive; reſtrained by no ties of juſtice, nor the tears of the miſerable; by no re⯑gard of hoſpitality, nor the protection due to ſtran⯑gers, he tortured and put to death, by the moſt in⯑human methods he could deviſe. Such oppreſſion, bar⯑barity and tyranny, muſt ever meet with untimely fate, and though Nadir, uſed frequently to ſay, he conſidered himſelf ſent by Providence, to correct the wickedneſs of men, and made that a plea for his inhumanity, yet neither [95] his own intrepidity, nor the vaſt power he commanded, could protect him from that Providence he had inſulted; for, ſoon after his departure from Iſpahan, he fell a victim to his own oppreſſion, and was killed in the act of the moſt ſanguine violence. On the plains of Sultan Meydan, about twenty-four miles from Meſched, he called together the chiefs of the Ouſbegs, Turkumans, and Tartars, who compoſed his army, and, having ſworn them to ſecrecy, diſcloſed a deſign of putting to the ſword, all the Perſians in his camp, and that he would fire a ſky-rocket, as a ſignal for the maſſacre; and when this work was done, he would load them with money and great honors, purpo⯑ſing after he had erected a huge pyramid of Perſian heads, to retire and end his days at Kaelat. A Georgian ſlave in Nadir's tent accidentally overheard part of this bloody plot, and diſcovered it to another, who at night ſent to the principal of the Perſian officers, and communicated the in⯑telligence. Minds, tinctured with jealouſy ſoon caught the alarm, and belief was ſoon confirmed; under ſo fatal an extremity no reſolution could be taken, but that Nadir himſelf ſhould die.
Saleh Beg, an officer of courage, and colonel of a body of Afhars, offered his ſervice for that purpoſe, and de⯑manded only four choſen men as followers. The time of Nadir, going to reſt was paſt, and it was but a few hours before the ſignal for the intended maſſacre was to be given. Saleh Beg and his followers, under a pretence of urgent bu⯑ſineſs, paſſed the guard and, ruſhing into the outward [96] partition of the Haram, met an eunuch whom they diſ⯑patched, from thence they proceeded through the Haram and, in their way, met an old woman, whom they killed likewiſe. They knew not where Nadir ſlept, till by the light of a lamp they diſcovered jewels; here they ruſhed in and found him. When the aſſaſſins approached him, Nadir drew his ſabre, and demanded what buſineſs they had; Saleh Beg made no reply, but cut him with his ſabre on the left ſide of his collar-bone; this did not prevent the Shah's collecting himſelf ſufficiently, to kill two of the the ſoldiers, who came up to finiſh their leader's buſineſs; he was then going, from the tent, when the cords of it trip⯑ped him up, and Saleh Beg, gave him a mortal wound. Nadir cryed "Mercy and I will forgive you all," to which this officer replyed, ‘You have not ſhewn mercy, therefore merit none.’ Saleh Beg having performed this buſineſs, cut off Nadir's head; but, the Tartars, to whom the tyrant had always ſhewn a preference, began to revenge his death, and fell on the Perſians with incredible fury, ſo that before day-light, above five thouſand men on both ſides were ſlain; the Tartars were ſhewn the ſlaugh⯑tered body, but inſiſted on ſeeing his head alſo, when being ſatisfied he was dead, the whole remaining army in⯑ſtantly diſperſed.
This ended the life of a man, whoſe actions made ſuch a ſplendid figure, even in the European world; had he been conſigned to his grave, inſtead of being deſtined for a diadem, many a ſtream of blood, ma⯑ny [97] a million of treaſure, had been ſaved to his coun⯑try; but we muſt leave him to reviſe his own actions, ſince he is in the hands of that Judge, whoſe law it is our honor and happineſs to obey, and whoſe counſels it is impiety to ſcrutinize. As we have be⯑fore obſerved, it is not our intention to dwell long or enter minutely, into the motives of his actions, and to unravel the foldings of a heart, mixed and compoſed of qualities, unintelligible upon common prin⯑ciples.—The reader, will however not be diſpleaſed with our digreſſion, and will forgive the following little narrative, taken from Hanway, ſince it has been re⯑marked, that ballads, and the ſimple tales of the in⯑ferior part of mankind, often mark the character and ſpirit of the times, with as much energy as the labor of the hiſtorian. Mr. Otter, of the academy of Pa⯑ris, received this remarkable ſpeech, from a peaſant of Perſia, on his being queſtioned, why he did not cloath his daughter better. "You (ſays the Peaſant) aſk this queſtion much at your eaſe, but I fancy you do not know Nadir Shah. Inſtead of thinking of our cloaths, it is well if we can get a morſel of bread; are we not obliged to ſell all we have, to find him money, and prevent our being baſtinadoed to death? They now demand of me three Tomans, (30 Crowns) I know not where to get them: my cattle, my flocks and my moveables, are already carried off, by the Shah's collectors. I have only two or three ſheep left, whoſe milk ſerves to nou⯑riſh [98] me, and this poor, little girl, whom I would gladly ſell, even to a foreigner, If I could get for her the ſum they demand of me; ſhe can never be in a worſe condition than ſhe is here, eſpecially if ſhe ſhould have the misfortune to loſe me, which muſt infallibly happen, if I am not in a condition to pay this money." But, to return to our ſubject.
The Perſians have very little maritme ſtrength. In the gulph of Perſia, they once had between 30 and 40 ſhips, ſome built in Europe, and ſome in Pegu and Surat, but they were generally navigated by Indians and Portugueſe. Their ſhip-carpenters are moſtly Indians, who perform their buſineſs with neat⯑neſs, but are very ſlow, and unfit for large work, neither do they underſtand much of the ſtructure of veſſels, or the manner of navigating them. They have a ſea-coaſt of 300 leagues to the ſouthward, and the Caſpian-Sea, to the North, where they for⯑merly built ſhips to protect themſelves againſt the Coſſacks. The Muſcovites generally tranſport Per⯑ſian merchandize in their own veſſels, and have the navigation of the ſea nearly to themſelves; which has rendered their conqueſts eaſy, on that ſide, and if the coaſt was fortified, and could be conſtantly ſupplyed with ammunition from Muſcovy, it would be difficult for the Perſians to remove them.
CHAP. IX. Of their Revenue.
[99]THE lands of Perſia, are either ſuch as are in occupation, or ſuch as are not; that is, ſuch as are cultivated, or ſuch as are uncultivated, of which the latter, are ten to one more than the former. The lands are of four kinds; the lands of the ſtate, the demeſne lands, the lands of the church, and thoſe of private men. The lands of the ſtate, are in the poſſeſſion of the governors of provinces, who receive from them, their own revenue, and aſſign the reſt for the payment of their officers, and the troops they are obliged to maintain; for, every ſoldier has his pay aſſigned him, on ſome village or farm.
The demeſne lands are the king's eſtate, out of which the officers of the houſhold are paid, and the ſupernumerary troops, which the king maintains; the reſidue, is given among the courtiers and favourites, or managed by the vizirs and intendants, who remit the produce of them into the treaſury. The lands of the church, are the donations of their princes, or pri⯑vate men, and are accounted ſacred; they are never taxed, on confiſcated for any crime; and, after a year's poſſeſſion, the title of them cannot be called in que⯑ſtion. The lands of private gentlemen, are holden of the crown, for the term of ninety-nine years, paying [100] an inconſiderable, annual rent, and at the expiration of the above term of years, they are allowed to renew, by advancing one year's income. If a perſon wiſhes to build on unoccupied lands, he muſt obtain a grant from the Crown, for ninety-nine years, and pay a ſmall annual rent. So that all ranks of men derive their eſtates from the Crown, as amongſt us, and there ſeems little other differ⯑ence, but that the Perſians have a term renewable at pleaſure, and our free-holders have an inheritance; but both acquire a perpetuity, by payment of their fines; and accuſtom'd rents. The King has a right to a third of the produce of the lands, and the grain of Perſia being ſub⯑ject to much injury from hail, locuſts, and other inſects, the tenants inſiſt on an abatement in ſuch caſes, and aſſem⯑ble in multitudes of ſeven or eight thouſand, round the palace at Iſphan. The court ſend orders to the Re⯑ceivers, to make ſuch allowances as the caſe requires, and and to inveſtigate the truth of the complaints; but the court is always defrauded; for the country-men ſo well underſtand the force of bribes, that they commonly make a purſe and procure a favourable repreſentation of the caſe, from the King's officers. The king has likewiſe a third of the huſbandman's cattle. Governors of provinces, are obliged, from time to time, to make large preſents to the court, of the beſt the country affords, whether ſilk, grain, fruits, cattle, or whatever is in eſteem amongſt than, and theſe are ſent in gratuities, ſufficient for the king's houſehold, and therefore may be accounted a con⯑ſiderable part of the revenue. The King has alſo the ſeventh [101] fleece, and the ſeventh of the breed of the cattle of thoſe lands, which are not appropriated to his uſe, which adds greatly to the revenue; for the ſhepherds of Perſia, like the ancient patriarchs, poſſeſs vaſt flocks and herds, on which they conſtantly attend; living in tents, and remov⯑ing from one place to another, as they can find paſture; for lands, unoccupied by particular perſons, are free for all men to graze on, and are deemed the King's; the pay⯑ment of the ſeventh beaſt is an acknowledgement of his dominion and property. The King has an officer in every province, to inſpect the ſhepherds, and to ſecure the ſe⯑venth of the cattle for his ſervice; of horſes, he is entitled only to every third colt.
Minerals and precious ſtones belong to the King only; and he has two per cent. of all money. The money that is raiſed by the waters increaſes the revenue; for every perſon muſt pay for its being let into his fields and gar⯑dens; the country being ſo parched, nothing will grow without ſuch aſſiſtance. The tribute of a ducat is paid to the Crown, by thoſe who are not of the religion of the country, whether natives or foreigners. The cuſtoms and port-duties belong to the revenue; but thoſe do not amount to much; for they have no conſiderable port, except Gombroon. Merchandize, carried in and out of Perſia, pays only a ſmall ſum for a camel's load, and in proportion for every mule or ox, without examining the packs. There is a tax of ten-pence on every ſhop of working trades, and twenty-pence on the reſt. All [102] handicraft trades pay no duty to the Crown, but they are obliged to work for the King, when he requires it, without pay, which ſaves the treaſury a great deal of money, and which may well be eſteemed a part of the revenue: but that which exceeds all, is the benefit ariſing from contingencies; namely, what is derived from the confiſcation of eſtates, and the preſents made by lords, governors of provinces, &c. and particularly thoſe on new-years-day. They preſent the King with wrought ſilks, horſes, aſſes, beautiful boys and girls, gold, ſilver, precious ſtones, perfumes, and every thing rich and curious, or that may contribute to luxury, and the pleaſures of life. The people are not oppreſſed or impoveriſhed by theſe preſents, but appear in eaſy cir⯑cumſtances; and there are few, either tradeſmen or huſbandmen, who do not wear rings on their fingers and arms. There is no poll-tax in Perſia, except on thoſe who are of a different religion. It is not eaſy to aſcertain the amount of the revenue of the Crown, it depending ſo much on contingencies; but it may, one year with another, be reckoned at four millions ſter⯑ling; which, conſidering that their troops are paid from the lands of the ſtate, is very conſiderable. But, as the ſplendor and magnificence of the Perſian court is much beyond what we ſee in Europe, little remains at the end of the year. The court, with the women, the eunuchs, and other officers and ſervants, ſeldom con⯑ſiſts of leſs than ten thouſand perſons, which belong to the houſhold; and, including the troops of the great [103] men, and their dependents, it muſt require an im⯑menſe ſum to maintain them.
All bargains in Gombroon are made for ſhahees, and the Company keep their accounts in them, reckoning them worth four-pence each; though that coin is rarely met with, but, in its ſtead, coz and mamoodas are cur⯑rent every where; ten coz being equal to one ſhahee, and two ſhahees equal to one mamooda; two hundred ſhahees make a toman, equal to 3l. 6s. 8d. Engliſh. Horſes, camels, houſes, &c. are generally ſold by the toman; and they uſually reckon their eſtates this way. Such a one, they ſay, is worth ſo many tomans, as we ſay pounds, in England.
The Perſians have five ſeals, which are uſed in five ſeveral branches of buſineſs; one concerns the demeſne lands; a ſecond is uſed for commiſſions, letters patent, &c. a third, for military affairs; a fourth, for the reve⯑nue; and another, for things relative to the houſhold. There are no arms engraven on them; but on one, are the names of the twelve Imans, or Patriarchs; on ano⯑ther, a ſcrap of the Alcoran; or ſome pious expreſ⯑ſion, ſhewing their dependence on God, and his pro⯑phet Mahomet. They are made of turquoiſes, rubies, emeralds, or ſome precious ſtone, about the ſize of a crown-piece. The principal ſeal the King always wears round his neck, and on Fridays, all inſtruments, which require the royal ſeal, are carried to the palace, and im⯑preſſed before the King, on a kind of thick ink.
CHAP. X. Of their Government, Laws, &c.
[104]THE government of Perſia is monarchical, and, in every branch of it, ſtrictly deſpotic. The favor of the Prince, and of thoſe on whom his authority de⯑volves, is eſſential to the ſecurity of foreign merchants; and this is beſt procured by proper and timely preſents, by a good appearance, and a reſolute, diſcreet ſupport of their own dignity. The Perſians are not unſkilled in the laws of juſtice and humanity; but war having been, for many years, their only ſtudy, and a fondneſs for outward ſhew their predominant paſſion, their laws are but little regarded, when they interfere with their inclinations: hence a good horſe, a ſilver-mounted bridle, and a girl, will generally induce a Perſian to violate juſtice, and even to commit that, for which he is morally certain of death.
The uſual title of the king of Perſia is Shah, or Pat⯑ſhaw, the Diſpoſer of Kingdoms; which is the higheſt in Aſia, and equivalent to that of Emperor, in Europe. They add alſo to the king's titles, thoſe of Sultan, and Caun, or Cham, which is that of the Tartar Sovereign. To acts of ſtate, the Perſian monarch does not ſub⯑ſcribe [105] his name; but oftentimes, in his patents, enume⯑rates the ſeveral kingdoms and provinces under his do⯑minion. His ſubjects addreſs him, as The moſt re⯑nowned of all men living; The ſource of power, ma⯑jeſty, and glory, equal to the ſun, ſubſtitute of hea⯑ven, Object of all men's vows, Maſter of the conjunc⯑tions, Head of the moſt excellent religion, Prince of the faithful, Shadow of the Almighty God, Father of vic⯑tory, Lord of the revolutions of the world, Diſpoſer of thrones and crowns. With theſe, or ſuch like titles, petitions are given to the throne; but, when they ſpeak to the King, they uſually ſtile him, The Lieutenant of God, or "the Prince, through whom God diſpenſes his grace and favor to men." Thoſe of the blood Royal, are ſtiled Mizza, which ſignifies, the Son of a Prince.
The Perſians, like the Romans, prefer all men in⯑differently to poſts in the ſtate, and in the army. The gown-men ſometimes command as generals, and ſol⯑diers ſit as judges in the courts of juſtice; and the ſame perſon has been prime-miniſter and high-prieſt: but they generally take care to prefer the native Perſians to civil and eccleſiaſtical employments. The higheſt eccleſiaſtic in every town is a judge, and tries civil cauſes under the governor, who generally refers the parties to him; and, upon the receipt of his verdict, the governor gives a final judgement. There is ſeldom any regard paid to a perſon's birth or fortune in his promotion; but the King diſpoſes of places, as he apprehends his [106] ſubjects are qualified for them. They enjoy their poſts during life, and ſometimes their children after them, when they have behaved well; and there are inſtances where a government has continued in a family for many generations; but, as the favourites of the court are al⯑ways endeavouring to promote their own creatures, this ſeldom happens.
The firſt miniſter in the kingdom is the Atamandoulet, a word which ſignifies the ſupport of the empire: when he is addreſſed, he is ſtiled the grand Vizir. No buſineſs of conſequence is tranſacted in the ſtate, but by the direction of this miniſter, nor any grant or act of ſtate of the king's, held to be valid, till counter-ſealed by him. The reaſon is, that their kings, being bred up with women, are perfectly ignorant of affairs of ſtate; it is therefore neceſſary for the welfare of the people and the good order of government, that their commands ſhould be conſidered by a wiſe miniſter before they are are inforced. The king is a mere cypher, and of no other uſe, but to ſanction the publick acts, the prime miniſter being, in reality, the king; who when his age renders him unfit to attend public buſineſs, is permit⯑ted to retire to his family, and end his days in peace. The ſecond poſt in the government is that of the Divan Bey, whoſe office may be compared to that of our lord chief juſtice, and ſometimes to that of our lord chancellor, but have Divans, or a council, to whom the adminiſtration of juſtice is committed; theſe magiſtrates decide on all cauſes, civil, or military, except when the king in perſon ſits in judge⯑ment. [107] The Divan Bey, or Lord, can command any cauſe to be removed to his tribunal, from any court in the kingdom; and, during the late reigns, no king has been known to concern himſelf, in examining the decrees of the Divan Bey. In the third rank come the generals; and next, the ſecretary of ſtate, who regiſters the public acts, and has the care of the records. He appoints alſo a deputy in every province of the empire, who tranſmits all affairs of conſequence, to be laid before the miniſtry. The laſt great officer is the mirab, or lord of the water, who ſuperintends the aquaducts. Every province has its mirab; for, in ſo dry a country, it is neceſſary all ſhould have an equal ſhare of water. Ambaſſadors, and foreigners, tranſact buſineſs with the nazir, or treaſurer and ſteward of the houſehold; who poſſeſſes great influ⯑ence, but is not permitted to pay any money from the treaſury, unleſs the order bears the ſeal of the prime-mi⯑niſter, the chief juſtice, and two other officers of the revenue. The maſter of the horſe has ſtuds of horſes in every part of the kingdom, and appoints officers to ſuper⯑intend them. The royal-huntſman is not leſs powerful, having a thouſand huntſmen and falconers at his com⯑mand. They breed for the chaſe, lions, ounces, pan⯑thers, and dogs; and have hawks, and birds of prey, which are bred to attack wild beaſts, as well as birds.
After theſe, the principal phyſician holds his ſeat; to⯑gether with the aſtrologer, which are places of great honor and profit. There is alſo a high-chamberlain, [108] who always ſtands behind the king. A white eunuch likewiſe attends his majeſty, who has greater influence than any round the court. He ſerves the king on his knees at table, taſtes his meat, dreſſes and undreſſes him, commands his wardrobe, and has the government of the eunuchs of the palace; he never leaves his majeſty, but when he viſits the ladies. He carries a little box, covered with precious ſtones, in which he has two or three fine handkerchiefs, opium, perfumes, and cordials, with which he ſerves him, whenever he may call for them. He is very powerful, becauſe he has ſo many opportunities of ingratiating himſelf; and is equally feared and reſpected by his majeſty's miniſters.
In every province of Perſia there is a governor, who is often as deſpotic as a ſovereign prince. Military cauſes are always tried by theſe governors, who, though they are accountable for all their actions, and have often their ears cut off, and noſes ſlit, and are ſeverely beaten on the back, baſtinadoed on their feet, till their nails come off, and not unfrequently ſtrangled, yet, they ſeldom abſtain from acts of violence and oppreſſion; ſo great is their love of cruelty, and their fondneſs of ſhewing the extent of their power.
The governors, in their reſpective provinces, live in almoſt as much ſtate as their ſovereign, having the ſame kind of officers as the king. They enjoy the ſame titles, and there is ſcarce any difference, but in their numbers, [109] and their penſions. The governor commands the militia of the province, and aſſigns lands for their maintenance; he reviews them, and ſees they are fit for ſervice; ex⯑amines their arms and horſes, and obſerves their manoeu⯑vres. There are officers under them, appointed to watch their conduct, and to oppoſe them, if they commit any thing againſt the ſtate. If a governor returns from his command, which he never does, but by expreſs order of the court, he waits without the gate of the palace, and gives notice of his arrival, by ſome friend; who reports, that he attends, to throw himſelf at his majeſty's feet. Orders are then given for his admittance, unleſs he has been guilty of great miſconduct; in which caſe, he is not ſuffered to appear, but an order is diſpatched from the prime-miniſter, and ſealed by the king, for his imme⯑diate execution. The perſon who bears the mandate, cuts him in pieces with a ſabre, crying out, when he falls on him, "By the king's command." Whenever a miniſter is diſgraced, his whole eſtate is withheld; and he experiences ſo great a reverſe of fortune, until the king's pleaſure be known, that no man dares give him, even a cup of water. If he is acquitted of the charge againſt him, he is reſtored again to his family and pro⯑perty.
The civil and canon-laws of the Perſians are blended together. Mahomet contrived this, in imitation of the law-givers of old; who, to enforce their laws, pretended their injunctions were the dictates of heaven. This great [110] Impoſter had an eye to the Jewiſh law, eſpecially the book of Leviticus, where the civil law and ceremonies are mingled together. According to the principle of the Ma⯑hometans, the ſame perſon bears the ſpiritual and tempo⯑ral ſword, and is both high-prieſt and king; he commands in war, and adminiſters juſtice, explains the articles of faith, and regulates the eccleſiaſtical dicipline, as the patriarchs of the Jews did; and, as the patriarch of their religion, and his ſucceſſors, uſed to do for the firſt five ages.
According to the Perſian doctors, the civil magiſtrate ought not to concern himſelf in the adminiſtration of juſtice, any further than to execute ſuch ſentences as the clergy pronounce. But the temporal power retains its authority, and does not allow the clergy any other ſhare in the ſupreme court of juſtice, than to give their opinion in difficult caſes. The Alcoran is their chief law-book; and if their deciſion is not clear, by the precepts it con⯑tains, they refer to "The ſayings, and acts of Mahomet;" and afterwards to thoſe of the Imans; but in general they do not conſult books, determining, without any regard to the writings of the Alcoran. The laws of the Perſians are not always ſtrictly obſerved; for, if they were, Chriſtians would not be able to live in Perſia, any more than Jews and Pagans; but would be every day ſubject to abuſe and plunder, from the precepts of the Alcoran; at leaſt, as they are explained and interpreted by their doctors; for it is impoſſible to prevent the inſults of the vulgar, who are frequently ſo bigotted to their ſuperſtition, and incen⯑ſed [111] by the clergy, againſt all who differ from them, that there have been inſtances of outrages committed on fo⯑reigners, purely on account of religion; and the influence of the prieſts is ſufficient to ſcreen from puniſhment, all offences committed againſt Chriſtians, as well as Pagans.
The Imans teach, that no faith is be kept with thoſe of another perſuaſion, and that it is lawful to deprive Infidels of their goods and eſtates. From hence, probably our diſ⯑ſenters derive their favourite tenet, that "Dominion is founded in grace; and the world, with its abundance, was intended only for the godly;" ſo that, with impunity, they defraud and plunder, and think they are fulfilling the de⯑crees of heaven, and doing a meritorious act, when rob⯑bing their fellow-creatures. Such baneful doctrine did our diſſenters avow, in the days of Cromwell! But, not⯑withſtanding the bigotry of a few affected puritans, the generality of the Perſians reſpect us greatly, and think there is no nation, whoſe merchants are more juſt, or honorable in their dealings.
All facts are proved in court by living teſtimony, and a man is at liberty to claim his right. Even the party's own deed will not exclude him, if he can prove any force, fraud, or impoſition. Where there are no witneſſes, an oath is tendered to the perſon who denies the charge; and he is ſworn upon the Alcoran with great ſolemnity, the judge firſt kiſſing the book, which is encloſed in a linen cloth, and touching it with his forehead, preſents it himſelf [112] to the perſon about to ſwear, who puts his hand on, it when opened, and ſwears to ſpeak the truth. If he is of a different religion, the judge ſends an officer with him to a prieſt of that religion. If a Chriſtian, he ſwears by the goſ⯑pel; if a Jew, by the old teſtament; if an Indian Idolater, by his adored cow; and if a Gaur, or a worſhiper of fire, he ſwears by the flames. The reaſon they never ſwear an unbeliever by the Alcoran, is becauſe he does not conſider it as a divine book, and they fear he ſhould profane it; of courſe, forbid him even to touch the cover of it.
The women plead their own cauſes, and it is but decent they ſhould. They are veiled, that they may acquire more aſſurance; and ſet ſecluded from the court, collecting their arguments, and enforcing them with the moſt bitter cries and lamentations. They never appear, but to ſue for a divorce, and the uſual plea is impotence of the huſband; ſailing not moſt bitterly to bewail and lament, and to deafen the judge with cries and clamour.
In criminal cauſes the civil magiſtrate never interferes, neither is the eccleſiaſtical law at all conſulted. They are left entirely to the temporal courts, which determine ac⯑cording to the nature of the offence, and former preſidents. Theſe courts conſiſt of three perſons, the preſident of the divan, the governor of the city, and the nazir. They have no public priſon, and conſequently no ſheriffs or jailors, who have the cuſtody of priſoners but every magi⯑ſtrate confines the criminal, in his own houſe, until he is [113] brought to trial, which is within twenty-four hours after he is taken, and ſentence is no ſooner paſſed, than it is executed. The ſervants of the judge perform the office of executioner. Criminals of ſtate have the Carcan, or three-cornered yoke, round their necks, to which the right hand is faſtened, and the king in perſon, ſits in judgement, againſt ſuch offenders. All tumults and riots are ſeverely puniſhed in Perſia, and of courſe ſeldom happen; ſo that murder and houſe-breaking is very unfrequent. If a perſon [...] ſo unfortunate as to kill another, and the fact be proved before the judges, the offender is not puniſhed by the court, but is delivered to the friends of the deceaſed, who put him to death, in what manner they pleaſe; all the relatives of the deceaſed aſſemble, and with loud cries, demand the ancient privilege of having the blood of him who had murdered their kinſman, which the magiſtrate ſeldom fails of promiſſing them; but ſometimes the mur⯑derer, by preſents to the judge, and by giving money to the relations, obtains his pardon. If the relations perſiſt in having his blood, the judge gives him up, with theſe words. "I give you the murderer, according to ourlaw; make yourſelves ſatisfaction with his blood; but re⯑member, God is merciful." The judge's ſervants are then ordered to obſerve the directions of the proſecutors, and guard him to the place they deſire; whither they accompany him, with curſes and abuſe. When he arrives at the place of deſtination, he is left to their mercy, and they often inflict the moſt cruel tortures on the miſerable wretch; even the women ſtain their hands with the mur⯑derer's [114] blood: but, ſhould it ſo happen, that life ſhould ſtill remain in the offender after their departure, they cannot, by their laws, again return to complete the ex⯑ecution.
Ordinary crimes are uſually puniſhed by fines, if the parties are men of ſubſtance; if not, they give them a number of blows on the ſoles of their feet, not leſs than thirty, nor exceeding three hundred. Their feet are often very much ſwollen with the blows, and turn black, and ſometimes the nails of their toes come off. The remedy they uſe, is to ſet the unfortunate man in warm horſe⯑dung, almoſt up to the middle, for ſeveral days; after which, they foment the parts with ſpirits of wine. Pick-pockets, and pilfering rogues, are marked with a hot iron in the forehead, and houſe-breakers have the right hand cut off. The ſame puniſhment is inflicted on thoſe who coun⯑terfeit money, for the firſt offence, but, for the ſecond, their bellies are ripped open.
For capital offences, the criminal's feet are tied to a camel, and, his head hanging down to the ground, his belly is ripped open, and his bowels hang over his head; after being dragged through the ſtreets, he is hung on a tree, by his heels, and is often ſeveral hours before he expires. They have other modes of puniſhing for capital crimes, by impailing, caſting from a rock, and many more too horrid for the feeling mind to dwell on.
[115]In Perſia the deciſion of cauſes cannot be protracted, to a tormenting or devouring length. Why they ſhould be more tedious, in limited, than in abſolute monarchies, ap⯑pears ſtrange, unleſs, in certain inſtances, ſlavery is prefered to liberty, or the name of liberty, to the reality of it. The law is certainly an excellent, and neceſſary profeſſion, but two many are bred up to it; conſequently, in purſuit of ſupport, they deviate from the original deſign, by perplex⯑ing, with injurious refinements, that which it is their duty to renderplain and intelligible.
CHAP. XI. Of their liberal Arts, Learning, and Language.
THE Perſians, at this period, know little of painting or ſtatuary. Their relegion, indeed, diſcourages painting, & the rigid Imans forbid the repreſentation of every created animal. Like the Chineſe, they attempt to imitate nature; but ſhe is pourtrayed in ſo barbarous a manner, that they appear to have conſidered her as deformed. The Euro⯑peans far excel them in every liberal art; yet, their antiqui⯑ties are ſomewhat curious, and evince a genius ſuperior to the artiſts of modern times. All the Mahometans are [116] averſe to ſtatues and pictures, and are more ſet againſt them, than the moſt rigid of our diſſenters. A Mohe⯑metan would not, for his life, perform his devotions in a room of paintings; and, in this inſtance, they greatly reſemble the primitive Chriſtians, who, through their abundance of ſanctity, covered the pictures of their ſaints, whenever they were in company with their miſtreſſes; thinking thus to veil themſelves from their obſervation. Their pictures are ſeldom drawn with a full face, becauſe they have not the ſmalleſt idea of giving life to their per⯑formances, by the judicious diſpoſition of light and ſhade. Their flowers are better painted; and they have the ad⯑vantage of us in the brilliancy of their colours, which are vivid to a degree of beauty, which cannot be preſerved in damp climates. However, the Perſians have a few good paintings, and preſerve the portraits of their celebrated poets, Hafez and Sadi. They are repreſented at full length, and habited in the old Perſian dreſs.
Poetry is held in great eſteem in Perſia, and it is cuſ⯑tomary, in common diſcourſe, to introduce moral ſen⯑tences, and poetical narrations, from their writers; and a Perſian never thinks he entertains his gueſt, unleſs he quotes different paſſages, and moral precepts, from ſome favourite poet. They ſtill preſerve the ſpirit of poetry, and have many traces of that fertility and ſtrength of ima⯑gination, for which, in times paſt, they were deſervedly famous.
[117]They have a number of ſchools in every town, where Arabic is taught, which is conſidered a learned language; but the Alcoran is the ſtandard of good language, both as to grammar and rhetoric. Men of fortune prefer private tutors for their children; and no nation is more attentive to the education of their young men, and to the training them to manly exerciſes. After they have been ſome time at ſchool, they finiſh their education at college, where they are inſtructed in the principles of their religion. Their colleges are large, and are very richly endowed: the largeſt of them have fifty or ſixty apartments, and to each of them are two chambers. At Iſpahan there are fifty-ſeven colleges, moſt of them of royal foundation; where there are profeſſors of every ſcience, who are paid annually by the ſcholars: but many read lectures, and teach the liberal arts, gratis; and theſe are generally great officers, who have been diſcarded, or have voluntarily retired from court. Theſe frequently give books and paper to their pupils, and often entertain them at their houſes, and by this means endeavour to regain their re⯑putation; for, nothing adds more to the dignity or ho⯑nour of a Perſian nobleman, than to inſtruct young men at their own expence, and be thus patrons of learning, and of learned men. They have no public diſputations, or lectures, as in England; but, when the collegians have made conſiderable progreſs in the ſciences, they diſpute with their tutors.
[118]The Turkiſh language is the moſt common in Perſia, and prevails on the ſouthern part of the Caſpian, as well as in thoſe provinces which were formerly conquered by the Turks. The pure Perſic is little known, but in the ſouth⯑ern parts, on the coaſt of the Perſian gulph, and the con⯑fines of Arabia, and particularly at Iſpahan. In matters of learning, they uſe Arabic; in which is depoſited, the greateſt part of that knowledge, for which the Perſians were once diſtinguiſhed; and the polite people are fond of Arabian words, which renders their diſcourſe the leſs in⯑telligible to men of inferior rank. The learned languages, familiar to Europeans, are not known amongſt them. As time ſeems to have made no change in the cuſtoms of Aſia, but the ſame manners remain, as we read of two thouſand years ago; ſo the language, particularly the Perſian, has the ſame ideom, and ſublimity of expreſſion.
They write, as the Hebrews did, from the right to the left, and often range their lines in an arbitrary man⯑ner, ſo that, upon one leaf of paper, they ſometimes write in ten different directions, and this only to ſhow the writer's ability, in obſerving the proportion of words and lines in each.
The language of the Perſians is extremely beautiful; and, it is to be lamented, it is not introduced as an eſſential accompliſhment, in the ſyſtem of our educa⯑tion. It is a melancholy reflection, that whilſt years [119] are beſtowed in acquiring an inſight into the Greek and Roman authors, that thoſe very writers ſhould have been neglected, from whom the Greeks evidently derived, both the richneſs of their mythology, and the peculiar tendency of their expreſſions. Mr. Ri⯑chardſon has entered into this ſubject with great abi⯑lity; and happy is it, for the advancement of learning, when men of genius differ in opinion, on themes of fair and reaſonable inveſtigation; for they ſhew us, it is not impoſſible, either to doubt with modeſty, or to diſſent with candour. Sir William Jones has publiſh⯑ed a beautiful hymn, addreſſed to the God Camdes, which reflects much light on literary information. This God is the ſame as the Eros of the Greeks, and the Cupid of the Romans. His bow-ſtring is compoſed of ſwarming bees, and his arrows are tipped with flowers delicious to the ſmell, but fatal to the taſte.
To the eaſtern Kriſhen and Gopia, which are likewiſe mentioned in the above moſt elegant compoſition, are we indebted for the names of Apollo and the Muſes. But, it is not amidſt the tender ſhades of poetry alone, that the Perſian ſcholar may find pleaſure and inſtruction. Hiſtory and philoſophy ſtand ready to receive their welcome gueſt, and to refreſh his weary ſteps with whatever is curious or intereſting. The etymologiſt too, will find an ample field in the ſtudy of the Oriental tongue; and we hope to ſee the auſpicious moment, when the majeſty of ancient know⯑ledge ſhall be again confeſſed by mankind; for, learning [120] has its link in the golden chain, with which providence has bound every thing together; and we cannot make a more noble or amiable uſe of our abilities, than by wiping away that ruſt of indolence, which has ſo long defiled its beauty.
When, under the pretence of commerce, we became the cruel invaders of another's right, was it not reaſonable to ſuppoſe, we ſhould at leaſt have made ourſelves ac⯑quainted with the language of the conquered; but, private avarice ſhut up the gates of public virtue. Victory diſ⯑dained to twine around her ſword, the wreath of ſcience; and, although the Perſian language is the language in which all buſineſs is neceſſarily tranſacted, yet, there never was any advancement made by us in ſuch literature, till the publication of Sir William Jones, who is now placed at the head of a learned ſociety at Bengal, and has it in contemplation, to publiſh annually, an Aſiatic Miſ⯑cellany. What is there we may not hope from his benevolent exertions.
The Perſian Gazel, or ode, is very ſimilar to that of Anacreon's—"dropping odours, dropping wine;" and, whether Anacreon borrowed the gaity of his odes from the Gazel, or whether the divine Hafez, inirched his native language, by an imitation of the Trean bard, it is not eaſy to determine. The ſimilarity of ſen⯑timent is oftentimes wonderful; and it may with equal truth be ſaid of both, that they wrote not ſo much [121] to the underſtanding, as to the heart.
The curious reader will find much entertainment, in the peruſal of the very elegant tranſlations of the Perſian Gazel, publiſhed by Mr. Nott, and to whom I am principally indebted, for the foregoing ingenious obſervations on the Perſic poetry.
Having conducted our readers over the regions of poetry, the connexion leads us to conſider muſic, the ſiſter art; but here we find no dulcet tones to ſooth the penſive ear, but a barbarous mixture of ſounds that little ſuits, the extreme tenderneſs and delicacy of their poetry. The tuneful muſe ſeems to have trembled at their religion, which forbad her to be wooed by the nobles of Perſia. Under ſuch op⯑preſſion has the muſic of this poetical country ever laboured. It is true, they have a number of different inſtruments, which are ſo rudely conſtructed, as to afford but indifferent harmony. They have no pro⯑feſſors of the ſcience; and conſequently, its refinement, being in the hands of the inferior claſs of people, can make but little progreſs.
Aſtrology is much ſtudied in Perſia; and particularly by the natives of Choraſanwho are celebrated for this art. They teach the art of divination, and interpret dreams; they have charms for all diſſeaſes, and take their ſpells, and authorities, from the Alcoran, which they render [122] as they pleaſe, according to the nature of the cir⯑cumſtance. They have a number of phyſicians, who, with the aſtrologers, do great injury to the country, inſomuch, that they are become proverbial. Yet, ſo great is their authority and influence over all, that even the King entertains vaſt numbers in his pay; and they are no leſs feared than reſpected.
The Perſians make uſe both of the ſolar and lunar year; the laſt, for their feſtivals, which are appointed on certain days of the month, and for their religious ceremonies. Their months begin, and end, with the moon, and conſequently, their years are ſhorter than ours, by eleven days. But their ſolar year conſiſts of 365 days; which is of an ancient date, for Quintus Curtius ſpeaking of Darius's train, ſays, that the Magi were followed by 365 particular perſons, according to the number of the days of the year, which, conſiſting of 12 months, ſeven had thirty days, and five thirty-one days, a piece, which compleated the 365
The year begins at the time of the equinox; and it is the part of the aſtrologer to make an exact ob⯑ſervation, by the aſtrolabe, of the very minute when the ſun, coming to the equator, enters into Aries. This day they call Naurus, or Neurus; that is, the new day; and when they are to make any computa⯑tion of their age, they ſay they have lived, or com⯑pleated, ſo many Nauruſes, or years. Their epoch [123] begins with the Hegyra, or flight of Mahomet, which is coincident with the 10th of July, 622 years after the birth of our Saviour.
The Perſians have fallen into a great abſurdity in their manner of inſtructing. It is common to ſee boys, reading leſſons out of the Koran, in Arabic, which they do not underſtand; and, to add to this farce, as they ſit, they make a motion with their head, and body, alledging, that this helps ſtudy. Thus does affectation ſupply the place of real learning. They acknowledge, that the Europeans have an univerſal ſkill in arts and ſciences, to many of which they are en⯑tire ſtrangers; and their preſent mode of education is not likely to remove this evil.
Thus the revolutions of time, and the changes to Which human affairs are ſubject, in conſequence of men's iniquity, have involved thoſe nations in igno⯑rance, who once enjoyed all the advantages which could grace and adorn human nature; and who were diſtinguiſhed as patterns of learning and politeneſs.
CHAP. XII. Of their Religion, Superſtition, &c.
[124]ZOROASTER, the founder of the ancient Perſian re⯑ligion, appeared in the year of the world, 2860. This great philoſopher was ſtruck with the demon⯑ſtration of the perfections of that ſelf-exiſting Being, who is the author of all good. Being at a loſs to account for the introduction of evil into the world, he imagined there were two principles; one, the cauſe of good, which he repreſented by light; the other, that of evil, which he figured to himſelf by darkneſs. He con⯑ſidered light as the moſt perfect ſymbol of true wiſ⯑dom, and intellectual endowment; and darkneſs, the repreſentative of things hateful and deſtructive. From hence he was led to inculcate an abhorence of all images, and to teach his followers to worſhip God, only, under the form of fire, conſidering the bright⯑neſs, purity, and incorruptibility of that element, as bearing the moſt perfect reſemblance to the nature and perfection of the good Deity. For the ſame rea⯑ſon, the Perſians adore the Sun, and think the throne of die Almighty is ſeated in it. In the compoſition of this world, good and evil, being mixed together, they believed they would continue till the end of all things, when each ſhould be ſeperated and reduced [125] to it's own ſphere. The ancient Perſians erected no temples, but offered their ſacrifices in the open air, and generally on the top of a hill; for they eſteemed it injurious to the majeſty of the God of heaven, to ſhut up, in walls, Him to whom all things are open, whom the world cannot contain, and to whom the whole earth, with regard to man, ſhould be eſteemed a houſe, or temple.
Another philoſopher, of the name of Zoroaſter, aroſe about 600 years after the former, near the conclu⯑ſion of the reign of Darius, the ſon of Hyeſtaſpas, who undertook to reform the articles of their religion. He maintained, there were two angels, one, of light, the other, of darkneſs, who were at perpetual variance with each other; and that, where the angel of light prevails, there good ariſes; and where the ſpirit of darkneſs, there evil predominates. He affirmed, that this oppoſition would remain till the cloſe of the world, when there would be a day of judgment, on which all would receive a juſt retribution according to their works; after which, the angel of darkneſs, and his followers, would be ſeperated, to eternity, from light; and thoſe who cultivated and cheriſhed the ſpiritual nature, and obeyed the angel of light, ſhould go into a world, triumphant, amidſt everlaſting brightneſs, and ſhould receive rewards due to their good deeds. Theſe opinions, in ſome ſort, are ſtill preſerved; and many of the ancient Perſians, ſtill hold a ſtrict veneration for [126] fire. To the everlaſting fire, near the city of Baku, pilgrims continue to flock, to expiate their own ſins, and thoſe of others, marking their foreheads with ſaffron, wearing very little apparel, living on wild ce⯑lery, or a kind of Jeruſalem artichoke, and keeping one arm, in ſome particular poſition, they remain un⯑alterably fixed in their attitude.
The Perſians acknowledge the Koran, as firſt pro⯑mulged, to be the great law of their prophet Maho⯑met; but they trace their eccleſiaſtical diviſions and inveterate animoſities, as high as his immediate ſuc⯑ceſſor Ali-way, Mohomet's brother's ſon, and married to Fatima, the daughter of that falſe prophet. From this, the Perſians naturally infer his right to the ſuc⯑ceſſion, which was invaded by his uncles, Abubker, Omar, and Oſman, the brothers of Mahomet; whoſe uſurpation, both, as kings and Prophets, is approved by the Turks. At length, Ali ſucceeded, and the diſpute might have been loſt in oblivion, had he made no difference in the Koran: yet, this produced no extraordinary effects till the 14th century, when Sheffie, a man of exemplary life, who pretended a re⯑gular deſcent from Ali, began to teach and expound the Mahometan law, and the doctrine of Ali's fol⯑lowers, in preference to the Turkiſh doctors of divi⯑nity. This revived the remembrance of the injury done to Ali, by his uncles, whom the Perſians began to curſe in their public prayers. They alſo changed [127] the form of the Mahometan creed, by giving Ali the title of "the friend of God". Theſe two ſects being divided, thoſe who maintained the ſucceſſion of Abu⯑beker, Omar and Oſman, called themſelves Sunnis; whilſt the followers of Ali took the name of Schias.
Experience has proved, how impoſſible it is, to keep mankind ſteady to any form of worſhip, even where they profeſs the ſame faith in eſſentials; and if this is the caſe, where religion is founded in truth, as in that of Chriſt, it is no wonder, that ſo abſurd a doc⯑trine as that of Mohomedaniſm, profeſſed by ſo many millions of people, ſpread over ſuch a vaſt tract of country, ſhould create diſſentions, with regard to ce⯑remonials, and the conſtruction of texts in themſelves inexplicable: nor is it ſtrange, that this ſhould produce national, and irreconcillable hatred.
The Perſians believe the Moſaic to have been the true religion before Chriſt; whom alſo they acknow⯑ledge to have been a true prophet, and teacher, ſent by God; but that the religion he taught was contained in a book, which at Mahomet's, coming, was taken by the angel Gabriel into heaven, and the Koran brought down in its ſtead. This however they do not at⯑attempt to prove. They ſay alſo, that Jeſus Chriſt did not die upon the croſs; but that another perſon was miraculouſly brought there in his place: thus con⯑feſſing [128] the truth of our Saviour's miſſion, but con⯑founding it with abſurd fables.
The Perſians, in their prayers, acknowledge but one God; Mahomet is his prophet, and Ali his friend. They appear not to have that modeſty, which pre⯑vails among chriſtians of the beſt ſort, who, to avoid the imputation of affectation or hypocriſy, are as zea⯑lous not to be ſeen on their knees, as afraid to commit any criminal action. If a bold, maſculine piety, and a ſincere awful ſenſe of the ſupreme Being, are ve⯑ry conſiſtent things, this excuſe of modeſty muſt be owing to an error in education. The reſervedneſs of ſome chriſtians, is often carried to exceſs. Perſons, pious before marriage, have been known to be con⯑feſſedly negligent in their devotions afterwards; the prejudices of education being ſuch, as that neither party choſe to be ſeen on their knees; and neglect, we all know, ſoon becomes a habit.
Not ſo does the enlightened Milton paint our firſt parents; not ſo does nature or reaſon dictate. Surely this is not, what our Saviour meant by deſiring us to retire to our cloſet; and is diametrically oppoſite, to what may be inferred from that paſſage of ſcripture, that the un⯑believing party, in marriage, is ſaved by the believ⯑er. Such an exceſs of reſerve, if ſuch is common, muſt be injurious to religion, and highly deſtructive [129] of the advantages derived to mankind, by the exam⯑ple of piety; particularly in the matrimonial ſtate.
The Perſians ſeem to be under the influence of enthuſiaſm; without which, devotion, in ſome men, is but a languid office. Their imaginations are warm; and we muſt not judge of the ſeeming extravagance of their expreſſions, by our colder feelings. Their phra⯑ſes and metaphors are highly juſt and beautiful, al⯑though they may widely differ from the coolneſs obſervable in the Engliſh mode of devotion. Paſſion, in matters of religion, is certainly neceſſary; and it ſhould be left to nature herſelf to determine how far it ſhould prevail: but a happy mixture of hope, love, and fear, under the influence and guidance of reaſon, conſtitute that paſſionate warmth, which is not only warrantable, but, in many minds, eſſential.
"Let thy words be few;" is an admonition well ſuited to the weakneſs of human nature; and the ob⯑ſervance of it at the ſame time ſhews the ſtrength of the underſtanding. But the Perſians, in contradiction to this precept, and the experience of mankind, make long prayers. After waſhing themſelves, and combing their beards, they often count beads, like ſome chriſtians, who probably learnt it from them. At certain parts of their prayer, they ſtand; at others kneel; and pro⯑ſtrating themſelves on the earth, ſet their forehead on [130] a bit of clay, near the ſize of a crown piece, ſup⯑poſed to be brought from Mecca, and conſequently to have a charm. This they always carry with them, tied to the upper part of the arm. They have ſtated hours of prayer, are punctual in their obſervance of this duty, and, to all appearance, perform it with more attention than chriſtians generally do: and although they are extremely immoral, they give one proof of religion greatly ſuperior, to the chriſtians, for they ſel⯑dom mention the name of the ſupreme Being, except, on ſolemn occaſions, or at leaſt in a reſpectful man⯑ner. The Perſians poſſeſs ſome Jewiſh rites amongſt them; and, when they pray, never permit the image of any ſenſible object to be before them; nor is it allowed to pray, with any thing of gold about them, as if it was eſteemed an object of idolatry. They invoke the interceſſion of the departed ſouls of ſome of their prophets and pious men.
It is wonderful to conſider, in how many inſtances, the Perſians demonſtrate the higheſt ſuperſtition. Snee⯑zing is held a moſt happy omen, eſpecially when repeated often. The hands, with the fingers, interchanged, and ſome particular poſture of the body, are conſidered as full of magic power, and, if uſed maliciouſly, of dangerous, conſequence. As their minds are tainted with a fondneſs of whatever is marvelous, and the belief of the agency of inviſible power, on the moſt trival occaſions; they think the meteor that reſembles the falling ſtars, and [131] which are vulgarly called ſo, are the blows of the angels on the heads of the devils, who would pry into the ſecrets of paradiſe. Cats are held in great eſteem, but dogs in abomination; ſo that a dog is never permitted to come into a room; yet, they uſe them for a, diverſion. The Turks are not much behind them in this folly. In the reign of Shah Abas, the grand ſeignior ſent to that prince, to deſire, that as none but their prophet, and his children, had been dreſſed in green, none of his ſubjects might be permitted to wear that colour; eſpecially in ſtockings. To this Shah Abas, who was a man of ſenſe, made an⯑ſwer, that, if the grand Seignior would prevent the dogs piſſing on the graſs, in Turkey, he would comply with his requeſt. Innumerable are the inſtances of their ab⯑ſurdity in the belief of inviſible agents, and of their ſuper⯑ſtition in the uſual occurences of life; but, it has ever prevailed, and has been common in a greater or leſs degree, to mankind of all religions, and in all countries. Happy it is for thoſe people, who profeſs a religion, which teaches them to acquieſce in things ſuperior to the reaſon and comprehenſion of mankind. Our condition does not permit us to know every thing; it is againſt the laws of our nature, and conſequently a crime to attempt it. Thus, where our underſtanding is puzzled, in the fearful inveſtigation of the things which belong to God, we ſhould pay our adoration and ſubmiſſion to the great author of nature, and place our humble and firmeſt con⯑fidence in him.
A Deſcription of POLAND, From Buſching, Cox, Marſhall, and others.
[]CHAP. I. Of the Country, Climate, Productions, &c.
THE word Pole, in the Poliſh language, ſigni⯑fies a flat, level country; but that the king⯑dom, and the whole nation, derive their name from that origin, cannot be affirmed with any certainty. This large kingdom, from eaſt to weſt, is two hun⯑dred German, or geographical miles, in length; and one hundred and forty in breadth, each mile being about four miles and a half Engliſh. Towards the north, it borders on Pruſſia, Courland, Livonia, and Ruſſia; and towards the eaſt, on Ruſſia, and Little Tartary. To the ſouth, it is bounded by Moldavia, Tranſylvania and Hungary; to the weſt, by Sileſia, Brandenburg, and Pomerania. The air is ſomewhat cold, but ſalubrious, and more temperate than might be ſuppoſed, from its northerly ſituation. The country is, for the moſt part, level, and has but few hills. On the Carpath⯑ian mountains, which ſeperate Poland from Hun⯑gary, the air is very cold; for it ſnows there in the midſt of ſummer; and, in ſome parts the [134] ſnow never melts. The Belſciattan mountains are a continuation of the Carpathian hills. The kingdom of Poland conſiſts of three principal provinces, Great Po⯑land, Little Poland, and the grand duchy of Lithu⯑ania. This diviſion is of great utility, with regard to the public law of Poland; according to which, the nation conſiſts of three diſtinct people.
The ſoil of this country is extremely fertile, and yields plenty of grain; of which there cannot be a greater proof, than that near 400 veſſels and floats, moſt of which are laden with corn, annually paſs down the Viſtula, to Dantzick. In Podolia, Volkinia, and Ukraine, and the province of Ruſſia, corn grows in vaſt plenty, and with little; culture or manure. In great and little Poland, agriculture receives more attention and labour; but the harveſts make ample amends for the care of the induſtrious peaſants; The ſoil of Lithuania is as fruitful as that of Podolia and Samogitia; though it was formerly very woody, and the greateſt part of it lay uncultivated, but having enjoyed much tranqui⯑lity, and the advantages of agriculture, it is become prodigious fertile, and produces a great quantity of wheat, and other corn, beſides hemp and flax: it is likewiſe famous for honey. The meadows and paſ⯑tures afford nouriſhment for numerous flocks and herds; and the ſheep yield fleeces of ſuperior excellence. Po⯑dolia abounds with a fine breed of horſes, and horn⯑ed cattle; but, in all ages, this country has been ex⯑poſed [135] to the inroads of barbarous nations, which, living on plunder, have often ravaged it in the moſt cruel manner. So fruitful are its meadows, that graſs of⯑ten grows to a wonderful height, and ſometimes a perſon cannot ſee the horns of the cattle that are grazing in the meadows. As an inſtance of the plenty of every kind of proviſions, it is a fact, that from the year 1701 to 1718, during which time there were ſeveral armies in Poland, there was not the leaſt ſcar⯑city of bread. Poliſh Pruſſia, is likewiſe a very fruit⯑ful country, and is remarkable for excellent paſturage. Peat, oker of all kinds, chalk, belemnites, agates, chalcedonies, cornelians, onyxes, opals, jaſper, fine rock chryſtal, amethyſts, granite, topazes, ſapphires, and even rubies and diamonds, are found in Poland. This coun⯑try alſo affords, Marienglaſs, or Muſcovy glaſs, talc, allum, ſalt-petre, amber, pit-coal, and an inexhauſtable quantity of chalk, which is hewn out of the rocks in large blocks, and ſalt ſprings; alſo ſpar, quickſilver, lapis calaminaris, iron, lead, a ſmall quantity of tin gold, and ſilver; but there are no mines of the two laſt metals wrought in Poland. They have manna, which is produced from an herb that grows in the meadows and fenny grounds, and is gathered, in great quantities, from June, till the end of July. The Po⯑liſh kermes berries are always gathered in May, be⯑fore they are quite ripe, for in the month of July they ſwarm with inſects, which leave a kind of pro⯑tuberance behind them, ſo that the berries are ren⯑dered [134] [...] [135] [...] [136] unfit, either for dying or medicine. The coun⯑try abounds in mines of ſalt, which is of different colours; but, when pounded, is of a dirty aſh-colour, like what we call brown ſalt. The principal mines are at Boenia and Wieliczka; in the latter, are many ſubterraneous paſſages, and in ſome of them are cha⯑pels and altars, hewn out of the ſalt-rock. In the chapel, crucifixes, and the images of ſaints, are ſet up, carved of ſalt, and a light is burning perpetually. The places where the ſalt is hewn out of the mine, and the empty cavities from whence it has been taken, are called chambers; and ſome of them are ſo ſpa⯑cious, that a large church might be erected in them. In theſe chambers are ware-houſes for the reception of ſalt caſks, and magazines for the fodder of horſes; and ſtables, which contain numbers of horſes em⯑ployed in the mines. In ſome places the tops and bottoms of the chambers are covered with thick moun⯑tains of ſalt chryſtals, which, by the light of the can⯑dle, reflect the moſt ſurprizing luſtre, and the moſt beautiful rays. Pieces of coal, and petrified wood, are occaſionally found buried in the ſalt. The rocks of ſalt are ſo ſtupendous, and of ſuch an enormous maſs, that they exhibit a wonderful phenomenon, in the natural hiſtory of the globe. It is ſuppoſed, that this ſpot was formerly covered with the ſea, from the appear⯑ance of the uppermoſt bed of the earth, as the ſur⯑face immediately over the mines, is ſand; the ſecond, clay, mixed with ſand and gravel, and containing pe⯑trifactions [137] of marine bodies; the third, is of calcari⯑ous ſtone. From hence, naturaliſts ſeem to agree, that it is a gradual depoſit, formed by the evaporation of its waters. They trace back the working of theſe amazing, inexhauſtable mines, above 600 years. How much earlier they were known, cannot be aſcer⯑tained.
Their profits are immenſe, and are appropriated to the King's privy purſe, the annual average amount⯑ing to £.97,222 4s. 6d. ſterling. They now belong to the Emperor, being ſituated within the province which he diſmembered from Poland; but are far from yielding a revenue equal to that which they afforded the King of Poland; for the Auſtrian commiſſioners imprudently raiſed the price of ſalt, from a notion, that Poland could not exiſt, without obtaining that commodity, as uſual, from Wielitſka; and would there⯑fore be obliged to receive it at any Price. This mode of proceeding offended the Poles, and the King of Pruſſia, with his uſual ſagacity, did not neglect this opportunity of extending his commerce. He immediately imported large quantities of ſalt, which he procured chiefly from Spain, to Dantzic, Memmel, and Koningſburg; from whence it was conveyed up the Viſtula, into the interior provinces: by theſe means he furniſhed great parts of Poland with ſalt, at a cheaper rate than the inhabitants could procure it from the Houſe of Auſtria; and, in 1778, the mines of Wielitſka [138] only ſupplied the diſtricts which immediately border upon Auſtrian Poland.
The moſt common way of manuring the ground, is by bur [...]g; and, as they have vaſt plains which lay un [...]vated, and over-run with long graſs, this is done without much labour. When the heart of one piece is worn out, they purſue the ſame method with another; being under no neceſſity of continually plough⯑ing the ſame. Their ploughs are nearly ſuch as ours, but are made of wood. The reaſon iron is not uſed, is, that they fear it will damage their crops. Their ground is tilled, with ſmall horſes, or oxen, two of which are ſufficient; and wheat is generally ſown, becauſe it is more profitable than Barley. Poland abounds in wood, ſuch as oak, beech, pine, and fir-trees. It alſo yields abundance of honey and wax; and a great quantity of mead is made of the former; which liquor derives its name from the Poliſh word miode, ſignifying honey.
Great numbers of cattle are fattened in Poland, and ſent for ſale into Germany. The horned breed abound ſo much, that 80 or 90,000 oxen, are annually driven out of the kingdom. Their horſes are very ſtrong, ſwift, and beautiful, and every where prolific. The foreſts contain, deer, hares, wolves, foxes, bears, elks, wild-aſſes and oxen; and, in Ukraine, near Nieper, ſheep and horſes are found wild. The wild ox, was [139] formerly very common in Europe; but exiſts no where but in the Lithuanian foreſts, in ſome parts of the Carpathian mountains, and in Cauſalus. The Biſon, or wild-ox of America, is ſuppoſed to be the ſame, but rendered different by a change of climate. They have likewiſe an extraordinary creature, called Bohac, which much reſembles the Guinea pig, but is more of the nature of the beaver. They dig holes in the earth, which they generally inhabit in the month of October, and ſeldom quit them but for food, till April. They have different apartments for their lodgings, proviſions, and their dead; and live together, by ten and twelve in a herd.
In the rivers are innumerable ſhoals of fiſh, and in the the country great quantities of tame and wild fowl. Their partridges, it is ſaid, often turn white in winter, in the north part of Lithuania, the ſame as they do in Muſcovy. The eagle and vulture are very common among the birds of prey. Lithuania is remarkable for the beauty of its birds; and poſſeſſes the remiz, or ſmall ſpecies of titmouſe, called parus pendulinus. It is curious in the ſtructure of its neſt, which is formed with wonderful art; the ſhape is like a purſe, compoſed of gos-a-mer, and minute fibres, and lined with moſs. The entrance is on the ſide, very ſmall and round; and ſo conſtructed, as to preſerve the eggs, or little ones, from the ſmalleſt injury. It is ſuſpended on the twig of a willow, or at the moſt [140] ſlender extremity of ſome other tree, over a river; and ſeldom lays more than four or five eggs.
There are many capital cities in the three provinces of Poland; Warſaw and Cracow, which are the prin⯑cipal in the province of Great Poland. Warſaw ſtands on the Viſtula, and in the centre of the kingdom, and is the royal reſidence. It is ſurrounded by a moat, and double wall; and conſiſts, of the old and new town, with two handſome ſuburbs. It poſſeſſes ſeveral elegant ſtone buildings, and palaces, a great number of beautiful convents, and churches, an hoſpital, an arſenal, and a ſtatue of King Sigiſmund III. The valu⯑able library of Count Zuluſki, opened in the year 1746, is ſaid to contain about 200,000 volumes, and is both an ornament, and advantage to the city. Some years ſince, an academy, for military exerciſes, and a literary ſociety, were inſtituted at Warſaw. The num⯑ber of inhabitants are computed at 80,000; among which, there are many foreigners. It wears rather a melancholy appearance, though its ſituation is pleaſant, being built on an eminence, from the banks of the Viſtula, and occupies a vaſt extent of ground. The ſtreets are broad and ſpacious, but ill-paved. The palaces of the nobility are numerous and ſplendid, but the greater part of the houſes, are ill-conſtructed wooden hovels, particularly thoſe of the ſuburbs. On the whole, it exhibits a confuſed ſcene, with the ſtrong contraſt of wealth and poverty, luxury and diſtreſs. [141] A provincial aſſembly, or diet, and a court of judi⯑cature, is held here, on which account it is far pre⯑ferable to Cracow, which city diſputes the honor of pre-eminence with Warſaw, for it was formerly the capital of Poland, where the Kings were elected and crowned; and was once near the centre of the Po⯑liſh dominions, but is now, a frontier town.
The royal palace is a noble edifice, beyond com⯑pariſon, the fineſt building in Poland. The apartments are well fitted up, and furniſhed in the Engliſh man⯑ner; being executed by the London artiſts, and brought from there at the King's expence. The room called the hall of victory, from formerly having been a hall, is converted into a ſaloon, hung with tapeſtry from Bruſſels; the ceiling, pannels, door-caſes, and window frames, are all neatly executed in white carving, gilt. The rooms are very numerous, and all the offices, for a court, extremely convenient.
The fortifications at Warſaw are ſufficient to pre⯑vent the towns being inſulted by flying parties, or ſmall armies, but could not ſtand a ſiege of any du⯑ration, againſt an army well provided. Its walls are good, and flanked with baſtions, and tolerably lined with artillery; the ditch is broad and deep, and the waters of the Viſtula may be let in at pleaſure; but the extent of theſe fortifications is too great, to be defended effectually, with leſs then eight thouſand [142] men. Warſaw is populous, it being the capital of Poland; and the miſerable ſtate of moſt of the other towns throughout Poland, has contributed greatly to its increaſe. There are many Poliſh families reſide in it, which were once in af⯑fluence, but now reduced to live in a very mean way. Speaking of Warſaw, the reſidence of the pre⯑ſent King of Poland, and the city where the court is held; we will take the opportunity of mentioning the court, as deſcribed by Mr. Coxe, in his enter⯑taining travels with Lord Herbert. "The Engliſh miniſter being abſent, in the country, we carried our letters of recommendation to Count Rzewuſki, great marſhal of the crown, who received us with much civility, and appointed Sunday morning to preſent us to the King, at his levee.—At the hour appointed, we repaired to the court, and were ad⯑mitted into the audience-chamber, where the prin⯑cipal officers of the crown were waiting for his Majeſty's appearance. In this chamber, I obſerved four buſts, placed by order of his preſent Majeſty; namely, thoſe of Elizabeth, queen of England; Henry, IV. of France; John Sobieſky, and the preſent Em⯑preſs of Ruſſia. At length the King made his ap⯑pearance, and we were preſented. His Majeſty talked to each of us a conſiderable time, in the moſt obliging manner; he ſaid many handſome things of the Eng⯑liſh nation, mentioned his reſidence in London, with great appearance of ſatisfaction; and concluded, [143] by inviting us to ſupper in the evening; of which honour we had before had previous intimation from the great marſhal. The King of Poland is hand⯑ſome in his perſon, with an expreſſive countenance, a dark complexion, roman noſe, and penetrating eye; he is uncommonly pleaſing in his addreſs and manner, and poſſeſſes great ſweetneſs of condeſcenſion, tempered with dignity. He wore a full dreſſed ſuit; which circumſtance I mention, becauſe he is the firſt King of this country, who has not worn the national habit, or who has not ſhaved his head, after the Poliſh cuſtom. His example has, of courſe, had many imitations: and I was much ſurpriſed to ſee ſo few of the nobility in the national garb. The natives in general are ſo attached to this dreſs, that in the diet of convocation, which aſſembled previous to the election of his preſent Majeſty, it was propoſed, to inſert in the Pacta Conventa, an article, whereby the king ſhould be obliged to wear the Poliſh garment; but this motion was over-ruled, and he was left at liberty to conſult his own taſte. At his coronation, he laid aſide the ancient regal habit of ceremony, and appeared in robes of a more modern faſhion, with his hair flowing upon his ſhoulders.
The levee being ended, we went over the palace, which was built by Sigiſmund III. and which, ſince his time, has been the principal reſidence of the Poliſh [144] monarchs. The palace ſtands upon a riſing ground, at a ſmall diſtance from the Viſtula, and commands a fine view of that river, and the adjacent country. Next to the audience-chamber, is an appartment fited up with marble, which his majeſty has dedicated, by the following inſcription, to the memory of his predeceſſors, the kings of Poland, Regum memoriae dicavit Staniſlaus Auguſtus bocce momentum, 1771. The portraits of the ſovereigns are ranged in chronological order: the ſeries begins from Boleſlaus, and is carried down to his preſent majeſty, whoſe picture is not finiſhed. Theſe heads are all painted by Bacciarelli, and well executed. The portraits of the earlier kings are ſketched from the painter's imagination; but that of Ladiſlaus II. and moſt of his ſucceſſors, are copied from real originals. Altogether they produce a pleaſing effect, and may be conſidered as an agreeable ſpecies of genealogical table. In the adjoining apartment are hung the heads of the members of the king's literary ſociety.
The court days do not exhibit any great circle of Po⯑liſh lords. The moſt conſiderable in the kingdom are not only in oppoſition to the crown, but even in open arms againſt it: but the officers, who are obliged to at⯑tend the nobles of the king's party, together with foreign miniſters, and Ruſſian officers, fill the room pretty well.
Cracow ſtands on a ſpacious plain, near the Viſtula, and occupies a vaſt extent of ground. The inhabitants [145] ſcarcely amount to 16,000, ſo badly is it peopled. The houſes are, for the moſt part, of ſtone; and many of them well built, and were once richly furniſhed, and very magnificent; but moſt of them, at this period, are unin⯑habited, or in a melancholy ſtate of decay. The town exhibits the remains of ancient magnificence; and, from the numbers of falling and fallen houſes, it appears as though it had been lately ſacked, and looks like a great capital, in ruins. The marks of grape-ſhot, and cannon, are diſcernible on its walls, from the fury of Charles XII. who beſeiged it, and cauſed great devaſtation at the com⯑mencement of the preſent century: but it has ſuffered ſtill more by the repeated ſieges it has undergone, when alternately in the poſſeſſion of the Ruſſians and confede⯑rates. It is ſurrounded with high brick walls, fortified with round and ſquare towers, after the old manner of fortification. The ſtreets are broad and handſome; but almoſt every houſe wears the appearance of ruined gran⯑deur; yet the churches have retained their original ſplen⯑dor. This city is famous for a univerſity, founded and endowed by Caſſimer the Great, and finiſhed about the year 1401, and improved and completed by Ladiſlaus Iaghellon.
The cathedral is a noble building, and is dedicated to St. Staniſlaus, formerly biſhop of the ſee, whom Boliſlaus II. killed at the altar with his own hands, becauſe the good biſhop's admonitions were grown inſupportable to him. The remains of St. Staniſlaus are incloſed in a ſil⯑ver [146] ſhrine; and maſſes are continually performed, day and night, in this church. In the treaſury of the cathedral, among other things of great value, the regalia, namely the crown and ſcepter, are depoſited; and, on this occa⯑ſion, the treaſurer of the kingdom has the care of it. The kings of Poland are always crowned, and their remains are interred, in this church.
Toward the ſouthern part of the town, near the Viſtula, riſes a ſmall eminence, upon whoſe top is a palace, ſurrounded with brick-walls, and old towers, which form a kind of citadel to the town. It was founded by Ladiſlaus Jaghellon; the greateſt part of it was demoliſhed by Charles the XII, in 1702, when he entered the town in triumph, after the battle of Cliſſow. There are ſome remains of the old ſtructure, conſiſting of a few apartments which remain in the ſtate they exiſted in the laſt century. The walls of the apartments are painted with tilts and tournaments, and ſome repreſent the coronations of the kings of Poland, others are painted with groteſque ſhapes, and carved heads of extraordinary appearances. They are all of large dimenſions, and ſhew the remains of an⯑cient magnificence, but are intirely without furniture. Since the year 1300, the laws of Poland have ex⯑preſsly enjoined, that Cracow ſhould be the place of coronation, and ſuch has been the ſuperſtitious attach⯑ment, of the Poles, to this cuſtom, that when John S [...]lieſky, was deſirous of being crowned at Leopold, [147] on account of its vicinity to the army, which he was to command, againſt the Turks, at the time of his election, the Poliſh patriots ſtrongly oppoſed any in⯑novation, and he was obliged to repair to Cracow for the performance of the ceremony. Since Ladiſlaus all the ſucceeding Kings, except the preſent, have been conſ [...]ciated at Cracow. It has often been conſumed by fire, and was once viſited by the plague, in 1707 and 1708, which ſwept away ſeveral thouſands of the inhabit [...]nts. The city is ſuppoſed to have been founded by a Poliſh or Bohemian prince, of the name of Cracus, in the year of Chriſt 700, from whom it takes its name; here is likewiſe the burial place of Cracus. Not far from the city, is another, of his daughter Venda, who, it is ſaid, drowned herſelf in the Viſtula, that ſhe might not be compelled to marry a perſon, for whom ſhe had entertained an averſion.
The houſes in Poland conſiſt chiefly of ground-floors, for they ſeldom live up ſtairs, neither are their buildings united, but the dwelling houſe is over againſt the gate, the kitchen and offices on one ſide, a round or ſquare court, and the ſtables, on the other, which are all generally built of wood. Some there are who affect to imitate the Italians, and build much higher with ſtone or brick; and, ſome of their towns are very regularly built, and are three or four ſtories high. The rooms are uſually hung with tapeſtry, and the reſt of the furniture is proportionably rich, [148] except where they are liable to the incurſions of the Tartars, and there they keep as little furniture as poſſible. The houſes of the peaſants are no better than huts, built with poles, in a round form, and open on the top, to let out the ſmoke; they are covered with boards, or thatch; and, as they ſeldom conſiſt of more than one room, the people and their cattle ſleep together.
CHAP. II. Of the People, their Cuſtoms, Manners, &c.
The common food of Poland, is beef or veal; mutton is not in much eſteem; veniſon, wild-fowl, and river fiſh, they have in great plenty, but no ſea-fiſh. They eat but little bread, though there is ſuch a quantity of corn, preferring roots, which they dreſs various ways: ſoup and broth they do not regard, neither are they ſend of roaſting their meat too much; in their, ſauces they uſe a great deal of ſaffron, and ſpices, and ſeaſon their diſhes very high. They are immoderate lovers of bacon. Peas are reſerved for the better rank of people: they are as fond of muſhrooms as the Muſcovites, and pickle their cabbage, and preſerve it all the year round. Their uſual drink is beer, which in ſome parts, is made only of malt, but in others of ground wheat. In Lithuania, and many provinces of Poland, they have mead, or metheſlin; and, at War⯑ſaw, [151] they frequently mix the juice of cherries, black⯑berries &c. with their honey, and give it different names. But, beſides the product of the country, beer and mead, they have great quantities of wine, imported from Hungary, France, Spain, Italy and Germany▪ That of Hungary exceeds the Spaniſh in ſtrength; and, is brought over the Carpathian mountains, in large caſks, drawn upon carriages by oxen, which renders it very dear, the beſt being ſold for twenty ſhillings the Poliſh pot, which is three quarts. The Italian wines likewiſe come by land, but are not ſo much drank as the reſt. The French and Rheniſh wines come by way of the Baltic, to Dantzick, and are much weaker than the others. All their ſtrong waters and ſpirits are extracted from wheat, barley, oats, cyder, &c. They are drank by the common people; though ſometimes, in winter, the higher claſs uſe them, when rendered palatable with anniſeed, cinnamon, and other ſpices. Their liquors are all, in general, very ſtrong, and well ſuited to their hardy manner of living.
The Poles are an animated people, and are, for the moſt part, open-hearted and honeſt; more prone to be deceived, than capable of deceit; and not ſo eaſily provoked, as appeaſed; courteous, affable, and moſt hoſpitable to ſtrangers; of great ſpirit, and exceed all other nations in vivacity. They uſe much [152] action in ordinary converſation, apply themſelves early to learning; but, having acquired a complete knowledge of the Latin language, neglect to ſtudy more. The women ſpeak Latin fluently, and it is ſaid, they learn it in their nunneries. The nobility and gentry are fond of arms, and poſſeſs a paſſion for travelling, endeavouring to qualify themſelves for employments in church and ſtate; they leave the care of trade and huſbandry to common people; and are, in general, ſo innured to hardſhips, that the Germans are deemed an effeminate race, in compariſon of them. Their armies have been often been known to lie abroad in the ſnow, all the win⯑ter, and, if they were well diſciplined, their troops would be invincible.
Both men and women are fond of parade and extravagance; and in nothing do they evince their diſpoſition for magnificence, more than in the mul⯑titudes of their ſervants, horſes, and arms. A Po⯑liſh gentleman dreſſes his ſervant equal with him⯑ſelf, preſently reduces his eſtate, to keep up the idle ceremonies of his eſtabliſhment. He himſelf has often forty different ſuits of clothes, the richeſt imaginable, but theſe are handed down from father to ſon. The nobles, and chief gentry, have all their horſe and foot guards, which attend, night and day, at their gates and houſes. Theſe go before their maſter's coach in the ſtreets, and they never [153] appear in greater pomp, than when at the general diet, or aſſembly of the ſtates. Their numbers vary, from four hundred to a thouſand; and they eſteem themſelves ſu⯑perior to German princes; eſpecially thoſe of the ſenate, who indeed want little to diſtinguiſh them from ſovereigns, in their reſpective diſtricts, but the privilege of coining money. At their meals, trumpets, and muſic, play; and a great number of gentlemen wait on them at table. It is uſual for a nobleman to give meat to his ſervant, as he waits behind him, which he receives, and eats ſtanding; ſerving his maſter with the moſt profound reſpect, with wine, or whatever he may call for. This circumſtance will appear leſs ſtrange, when we conſider, that many of the inferior nobility ſubmit to enter into the ſervice of the ſuperior: which, in Poland, is conſidered as no diſgrace; for, in general, they are treated liberally, ſuffered to eat at the ſame table, and have a peaſant-boy to wait on them, But, ſhould any of theſe gentlemen-ſervants neglect their duty, they are whipped naked, with little regard to their quality. Even this puniſhment is not conſidered as diſ⯑graceful, nor any ſituation they may be ſubject to, pro⯑vided they never apply themſelves to trade or huſbandry, either employment being deemed infamous for a Poliſh gentleman.
The ladies of the Poliſh grandees often carry their ex⯑travagance to a pitch of refinement truly ridiculous. It is not unuſual to ſee one of theſe ladies attended in her. train of ſervants and coach with ſix horſes, by an old gen⯑tleman-uſher, [154] a governante, and a dwarf, of each ſex, to bear a train: and, if it be night, ſhe is ſurrounded with flambeaux. Her equipage the reader will have an idea of, if he figures to himſelf every thing that is ſhewy in life; every thing that is magnificent, ceremonious, and expenſive. Pomp, in general, is limited only by the ex⯑tent of the eſtate; though that, not unfrequently, falls a victim to the vanity of its owner; who, being forbidden by the rules of honour, to enrich himſelf by trade, is re⯑duced to perfect beggary, or obliged to enter into the ſer⯑vice of the nobles.
The mode of ſalutation among the Poles, is, by inclin⯑ing their heads, and ſtriking their breaſts with one of their hands, while they ſtretch the other towards the ground: but, when a common perſon meets a ſuperior, he bows his head almoſt to the earth, waving, at the ſame time, his hand, with which he touches the bottom of the leg, near the feet of the perſon to whom he pays his obeiſance Men of all ranks generally wear whiſkers, and ſhave their heads, leaving only a circle of hair upon the crown.
They are fond of ſociety, and entertain in the moſt friendly manner; they find neither ſpoons, knives, or forks, but every perſon brings his own. The moment their gueſts enter the houſe, the gates are immediately ſhut, nor are ſuffered to be opened, until the company depart. Every man of diſtinction ſets his hall apart, for the purpoſe of entertainment; in which is a place, railed [155] in, where an immenſe quantity of plate is ſhewn; and over it a gallery for muſic, which conſiſts of an organ, violins, &c. Thoſe who are invited, bring their ſervants with them; and, although there is always a profuſion of every delicacy, there is very little returned to the family; but the gentleman's ſervants ſeize what is left, and they have a napkin, on purpoſe to carry off the ſweet-meats for their ladies. After the cloth is removed, the gentlemen uſually ſit, and drink a great while, and ſmoke tobacco, when the ladies retire. The women are always admitted to their feaſts, and drink wine in bumpers, which is cuſ⯑tomary with the Poles; nor will they eaſily excuſe the gentlemen from pledging them.
As a proof of the magnificence and elegance of the Po⯑liſh entertainments, we ſhall add an account of a fête cham⯑pêtre, as deſcribed by Mr. Coxe, and given by the princeſs Zartoriſki, to lord Herbert.
Povonſki, the villa of prince Adam Zartoriſki, is about three miles from Warſaw, in the midſt of a foreſt. The ſituation is almoſt level, with here and there a gentle ſlope, which produces an agreeable variety. A river runs through the grounds, which are laid out in the En⯑gliſh taſte, with a beautiful intermixture of lawn and wood; walks are cut through the wood, and carried along the ſide of the water. The houſe, which ſtands upon a gentle riſe, has the appearance of a cottage, con⯑ſtructed, like thoſe of the peaſants, with trunks of trees piled upon each other, and thatched with ſtraw. Beſides [156] the principal building, inhabited by the prince and prin⯑ceſs, there are ſeparate cottages for the children and atten⯑dants, [...]ch of which has its incloſures, and a ſmall garden. This group of ſtructures bears the reſemblance of a vil⯑lage, compoſed of huts, ſcattered at a ſmall diſtance from each other. Other buildings, ſuch as ſummer-houſes, pavillions, ruſtic ſheds, and ruins, are diſperſed through⯑out the grounds. The ſtables are conſtructed in the form of a half-demoliſhed amphitheatre. Several romantic bridges, rudely compoſed of trunks, and bent branches of trees, contribute to heigthen the ruſticity of the ſce⯑nery.
Upon our arrival, we repaired to the principal cottage, where the princeſs was, ready to receive us. We ex⯑pected the inſide to be furniſhed in the ſimple ſtyle of a peaſant's hovel; but, were ſurpriſed to find every ſpecies of elegant magnificence, which riches and taſte could collect. All the apartments are decorated in the moſt coſtly manner; but the ſplendour of the bath-room was peculiarly ſtriking. The ſides are covered, from top to bottom, with ſmall ſquare pieces of Dreſden china, each ornamented with a ſprig; and the border and cieling are painted with beautiful feſtoons. The expence of fitting up this apartment muſt have been prodigious; as I was informed there were at leaſt three thouſand ſquare pieces of china uſed, each of which coſt, at Dreſden, three du⯑cats, or 1l. 7s. 6d.
[157]After having ſurveyed all the apartments, we proceeded to an incloſure near the houſe, ſurrounded with large blocks of granite, heaped one upon another; and fallen trees, placed in the moſt natural and pictureſque ſhapes. Here we drank tea, upon the lawn. From thence we repaired to the ſeveral cottages inhabited by the children; which are fitted up in different ſtyles, but with equal elegance. Every thing without doors conveyed an idea of a happy peaſant's family; and all within, was coſtlineſs and ſtate. Such a contraſt of ſimplicity and magnificence can hardly be conceived. We next walked round the grounds, which are elegantly laid out, in our taſte of gardening. The company then all adjourned to a Turk⯑iſh tent, of rich and curious workmanſhip, pitched in a beautiful retired field, near the ſtables, which repreſent a ruined amphitheatre. This tent belonged to the grand vizier, and was taken during the late war between the Ruſſians and the Turks: under it, was a ſettee, and a carpet, ſpread upon the ground. Here we ſtaid, con⯑verſing, until it was quite dark, when the princeſs pro⯑poſed returning. She led us, through the houſe, to a ſmall ſpot of riſing ground, where we were ſuddenly ſtruck with a moſt beautiful illumination. A ruſtic bridge, conſiſting of a ſingle arch, over a broad piece of water, was ſtudded with ſeveral thouſand lamps, of different co⯑lours; while the reflexion of this illuminated bridge, in the water, was ſo ſtrong, as to deceive the eye, and give the whole the appearance of a brilliant circle, ſuſpended in the air. The effect was ſplendid, beyond deſcription; and [158] conſiderably heightened by the gloom of the foreſt in the back-ground. While we continued admiring this delight⯑ful ſcene, a bank of muſic ſtruck up, at a little diſtance' and amuſed us with an excellent concert.
We were then lead from this exchanting ſpot, acroſs the illuminated bridge, to a thatched pavillion, opened at the ſides, and ſupported by pillars, ornamented by gar⯑lands, and twiſted feſtoons of flowers. We found within, a cold collation, and ſat down to a table, covered with all kinds of delicacies, with the moſt coſtly wines, and every ſpecies of fruit, which art or nature could furniſh. The evening was delightful, the ſcenery pictureſque, the fare delicious, the company in good ſpirits; for, who could be otherwiſe, when every circumſtance which the taſte and ingenuity of our fair hoſteſs could invent, conſpired to heighten the entertainment? The collation being ended, we roſe from table, which I concluded to be the cloſe of the entertainment, but was agreeably diſappointed. The gardens were ſuddenly illuminated: we all ranged about, as fancy dictated; and were gratified by the ſound of wind inſtruments, played by perſons diſperſed in dif⯑ferent parts of the grounds. We repaſſed the bridge, and returned into the cottage; when the two eldeſt daughters of the princeſs, who were dreſſed in Grecian dreſſes, of the moſt elegant ſimplicity, performed a Poliſh and a Coſſac dance; the former, ſerious and graceful; the latter, comic and lively. The eldeſt ſon, a boy about eight years old, next performed a hornpipe, with wonderful [159] agility; and afterwards a dance, in the ſtyle of the Poliſh peaſants, with much humour. It was now paſt two in the morning. We ſeemed as if we could ſtay for ever: but, as there muſt be an end of all ſublunary joys, we took our leave, expreſſing our thanks and gratitude, in language far unequal to our feelings. I can ſcarce form to myſelf a fête champêtre ſo elegant; and I am ſatisfied, it will ſeldom fall to the lot of the ſame perſon, to partake of ſuch a pleaſing entertainment, twice in his life.
The amuſements and exerciſes of the Poles contribute much to their health, their diverſions being warlike and manly. Hunting, and feats of horſemanſhip, they value themſelves greatly on. Leaping, vaulting, and jump⯑ing, is much in faſhion; and dancing is a favourite amuſe⯑ment. Muſic has its charms with this people, and tends much to promote the natural vivacity of their diſpoſitions and converſation, in which they excel, and are extremely fond of it.
The Poliſh noblemen are aſſiduous to amuſe; and it is conſidered eſſential in the etiquette of hoſpitality, to in⯑vent whatever may be novel, or will tend to the ſatisfaction of their gueſts. In their endeavours (and indeed in their houſes, decorations, and furniture), they happily blend the Engliſh and French modes. Their generoſity is in⯑timately connected with their politeneſs; and, as they ſpare no expence, and have naturally a good taſte, they always ſucceed in creating pleaſure and ſurprize.
[160]The Poliſh gentlemen generally travel on horſeback; but, the country being open, and but few hills, a calaſh, and pair of horſes, is very much uſed on a journey. The peaſants have little wooden waggons, tilted, with a kind of baſket work; and their wheels, all of a piece, without ſpokes. Travellers ſeldom meet with any thing to eat in the country inns in Poland, but are obliged to buy proviſions in the towns, and carry them with their bag⯑gage. This inconveniency is ſomewhat obviated, in the perſons of foreigners, who, if they want a ſupply, ſend to the lord of the village, who furniſhes them with every neceſſary. Their inns are but few, and thoſe very miſe⯑rable, the inn-keepers chuſing not to provide more than ſufficient for their own family; owing to the want of ho⯑neſty in the natives, when they travel; finding, from ex⯑perience, that their gueſts are ſeldom in the mind to make any returns for their entertainment. The inns have boarded booths, at the end of which are little rooms, with a fire-place, but without furniture, where the traveller may ſleep, if he pleaſes; but the fleas, and other ver⯑min, will ſo diſturb him, that he had better retire, and contentedly repoſe with his cattle.
Paſſing through foreſts, the traveller frequently ob⯑ſerves the traces of former incloſures, and ſometimes, even the veſtiges of paved ſtreets are diſcernible. He is often impeded by waters, whoſe bridges are kept but in ill re⯑pair; and it is neceſſary to be very careful in paſſing them; and, in winter, a ſledge muſt be procured, for the coach, [161] or calaſh, to paſs over the ice. The cold is extreme in the northern parts of the country; for which reaſon, it is neceſſary to provide coats, lined with fur, and caſes, to put the feet in, when riding in a calaſh. Horſemen line their boots, and ſeldom travel without a cordial dram. The horſe is ſometimes in danger of being frozen; againſt which, they uſe the ſame remedy as the Ruſſians, by rubbing it with ſnow.
Mr. Coxe thus ſpeaks of the roads, and of the incon⯑venience of travelling; "I never ſaw a road ſo barren of intereſting ſcenes, as that from Cracow to Warſaw; there is not a ſingle object throughout the whole tract, which can, for a moment, draw the attention of the moſt inqui⯑ſitive traveller. The country, for the moſt part, is level, with little variation of ſurface; and is chiefly overſpread with vaſt tracts of thick, gloomy foreſts; and, even where the country was more open, the diſtant horizon was always ſkirted with wood. The trees were moſtly pines and firs, intermixed with beech, birch, and ſmall oaks. The occa⯑ſional breaks in the foreſt preſented ſome paſture-ground, and here and there a few meagre crops of corn."
"Without having actually traverſed it, I could hardly have conceived ſo comfortleſs a region. A forlorn ſtil⯑neſs and ſolitude prevailed almoſt throughout the whole extent, with few ſymptoms of an inhabited, and ſtill leſs, of a civilized country. Though in the high road which unites Cracow to Warſaw, in the courſe of about 258 [162] Engliſh miles, we met, in our progreſs, only two car⯑riages, and about a dozen carts. The country was equally thin of human inhabitants: a few ſtraggling villages, all built of wood, ſucceeded one another, at long intervals, whoſe miſerable appearance correſponded to the wretch⯑edneſs of the country around them. In theſe aſſemblages of huts, the only places of reception for travellers, were hovels, belonging to Jews, totally deſtitute of furniture, and every ſpecies of accommodation."
"We could ſeldom procure any other room but that in which the family lived. In the article of proviſion, eggs and milk were our greateſt luxuries, and could not always be obtained. Our only bed, was ſtraw, thrown upon the ground; and we thought ourſelves happy, if we could get it clean. Even we, who were by no means delicate, and who had long been accuſtomed to put up with all inconveniencies, found ourſelves diſtreſſed in this land of deſolation. Though, in moſt countries, we made a point to ſuſpend our journey during night, in order that no ſcene might eſcape our obſervation, yet, we here preferred con⯑tinuing our rout, without intermiſſion, to the penance we endured in the receptacles of penury and filth; and we have reaſon to believe, the darkneſs of the night deprived us of nothing, but the ſight of gloomy foreſts, indifferent crops of corn, and objects of human miſery. The road bore as few marks of induſtry as the country it interſects. It was beſt where it was ſandy: in other parts, it was ſcarce paſſable; and, in the marſhy grounds, where [163] ſome labour was abſolutely neceſſary to make it ſupport the carriages, it was raiſed with ſticks, and boughs of trees, thrown promiſcuouſly on the ſurface, or formed by trunks of trees, laid croſs-ways."
In the marriage ceremonies, or burials of the Poles, there is little that requires a particular deſcription, but it is obſervable, that they celebrate them with vaſt pomp and expence; and it is cuſtomary, for all at the wedding, to contribute to the portion of the bride, by giving preſent, which are often very mag⯑nificent. By the laws of Poland, the eſtate of the father, is equally divided among his children, except any of them go into a monaſtery, and then their portion is divided among the reſt; the younger children as in other Popiſh countries, are encouraged by their parents to take the vow upon them, that their eſtates may be preſerved entire for the eldeſt ſon, which would otherwiſe dwindle away to nothing, where there happens to be a numerous iſſue.
The diſeaſes of the poles are very few; that of the Plica, is the moſt painful; and is ſuppoſed to proceed from an acrid viſcous humour, penetrating into the hair, which is tubular; it then exudes either from its ſides or extremities, and clots the whole to⯑gether, either in ſeperate folds, or in one undiſtin⯑guiſhed maſs. Its ſymptoms, more or leſs violent, according to the conſtitution of the patient, or ma⯑lignity [164] of the diſeaſe; are itchings, ſwellings, eruptions, ulcers, intermitting fevers, pains in the head, langour, lowneſs of ſpirits, rheumatiſm, gout, and ſometimes with convulſions, palſy, and madneſs. Theſe ſymp⯑toms gradually decreaſe as the hair becomes affected, if the patient is ſhaved on the head, he relapſes into all the dreadful complaints, which preceded the eruption of the plica, and he continues to labour under them until a freſh growth of hair, abſorbs the ancient humour. This diſorder is deemed hereditary, and is proved to be contagious, when in a virulent ſtate. Many phyſical cauſes, have been ſuppoſed, to render the plica, more frequent in theſe regions, than in any other parts; and, it would be endleſs to enu⯑merate the various conjectures with which each per⯑ſon has ſupported his favourite hypotheſis. But, the moſt probable, are thoſe aſſigned to Dr. Vicat. The firſt cauſe is the nature of the Poliſh air, which is rendered inſalubrious, by numerous woods and moraſſes, and occaſionally derives an uncommon keen⯑neſs, even in the midſt of ſummer, from the poſi⯑tion of the Carpathian mountains; for the ſouthern and ſouth eaſterly winds, which uſually convey warmth in other regions, are in this chilled in their paſſage over their ſnowy ſummits. The ſecond is unwhole⯑ſome water; for although Poland is not deficient in good ſprings, yet the common people uſually drink that which is neareſt at hand, taken indiſcriminately from rivers, lakes, and even ſtanding pools. The [165] third cauſe is the inattention of the natives to clean⯑lineſs; for experience ſhews, that thoſe who are not negligent in their perſons, and habitations, are leſs liable to be afflicted with the Plica, than others who are deficient in that particular. In a word, the Plica Polonica, appears to be a contagious diſtemper, which like the leproſy, ſtill prevails among a people ignorant in medicine, and inattentive to check its progreſs; but it is very rarely known in thoſe countries where proper precautions are taken to prevent it ſpreading.
CHAP. III. Of their Trade, Manufactures, &c.
THERE are few manufacturers in Poland, and the commodities of the country, are for the moſt part exported, unwrought, out of the kingdom. Religious zeal, or rather bigotry, has greatly injured the trade, and commerce of Poland; but ſo late as the year 1776, manufactures have been eſtabliſhed, which ſeem to pro⯑miſe ſucceſs, under the patronag, of the preſent amia⯑ble monarch. Theſe manufactures, employ 3000 per⯑ſons, [166] including thoſe diſperſed in the contiguous villages, who ſpin linen, and worſted thread. Here are twenty foreigners, who direct, the different branches; the reſt are natives, belonging to the King's demeſnes. The ap⯑prentices are boys and girls, all children of the Poliſh pea⯑ſants, who are clothed and fed, and have beſides a ſmall allowance in money. The directors, ſays Mr. Coxe, ‘complain of their having no emulation among them, and that, although, they are better fed, and cloathed, than the other peaſants, yet, they cannot excite them to induſtry, by any other means than force.’ Nor is this a matter of wonder; for as they ſtill continue in a ſtate of ſervitude, if they acquire any unuſual profit, and carry it to their parents, they are apprehenſive, leſt it ſhould be taken away; it having frequently happened, that any lit⯑tle pittance, they had gained by their labour, has been wreſted from, in order to pay the quit-rents, which their parents owed to their lords. One of the apprentices, more ſhrewd than than the reſt, ſaid to the director, who was trying to ſtimulate her induſtry, ‘What advantage ſhall I attain, if I follow your advice! Let me become ever ſo ſkillful in my trade, I ſhall always continue ſub⯑ject to my maſter: the labour, will be mine, the profit his.’—To which obſervation, no reply could be given. Moſt of them, adds Mr. Coxe, appeared with a ſettled me⯑lancholy in their countenances, as made my heart ach to ſee them; and, it was eaſy to perceive, they worked from compulſion, and not from inclination.
[167]As ſome remedy for this evil, it has been propoſed, after a certain time of years, to give liberty to thoſe, who particularly excel and diſtinguiſh themſelves, by any ex⯑traordinary exertions. But this humane propoſal, has been rejected; from a notion, that ſuch perſons, when once made free, would do longer continue to work: and that by theſe means, the manufactures would be deprived of their beſt hands. Though this inconvenience, however, might occaſionally take place, yet the encouragement of ſuch a regulation, would beget alacrity, and excite induſtry, and would therefore create a greater number of artiſts, than it would emancipate. It would now and then occaſion the loſs of a manufacturer; but, it would diffuſe ſuch a know⯑ledge of the manufacture, as to render the loſs immate⯑rial.
The manufactures are ſtill in their infancy, but their inſtitution reflects conſiderable luſtre, upon his preſent Majeſty's reign; and more particularly, as his attention was not withdrawn from them, during the civil commo⯑tions, which ſo lately ſhook his throne.
The manufactures are chiefly of linen, leather, hard⯑ware, and earthen-ware; and theſe are far from being im⯑proved as they might be, the better ſort of people, look⯑ing upon every thing that relates to trade, or mechanic employments, as beneath their care; and the lower claſs, [168] being vaſſals to the reſt, have neither time, nor ſtock to make any conſiderable improvement.
The language of the Poles, is the Sclavonian, but there are ſo many different dialects of it, ſpoken in the different provinces of this kingdom, that one part of the people ſcarce underſtand the other. They all, however, agree in multiplying conſonants, and if they did not ſound more vowels when they ſpeak, than are contained in the words they write, it would be impoſſible to utter them. The Latin is as univerſally ſpoken, as the Scla⯑vonian, there being a ſchool in every village, for the teach⯑ing it, and the girls learn it in their nunneries: it is ſpoken even by the the lower claſs of people, but without any re⯑gard to accent, quantity, or purity of language. From the time of King Sigiſmund I. to the reign of Wladiſlaus IV. was the interval, when arts and ſciences flouriſhed moſt in Poland. Since that aera, the Poliſh muſe, ſeems to have drooped and languiſhed. However, they now begin to revive, for at preſent, the purity and elegance of the Poliſh and Latin languages are ſtudied, the new philoſophy is introduced, the mathematics are taught, and natural philoſophy flouriſhes; the learned in this country, alſo apply themſelves, to the ſtudy of Poliſh hiſtory, which they cultivate and improve, endeavouring to make the good writers, of former ages, better known, and uſeful to the preſent; this, and the valuable library of count Za⯑luſki, at Warſaw, opens an ineſtimable treaſure of ancient authors. The Greek language begins to be ſtudied in [169] Poland, and literary correſpondences are carried on with learned foreigners. It is true, the preſs has not produced ſo many books in Poland, as in other countries; but this may be imputed in a great meaſure, to a want of able pub⯑liſhers, liberal patrons of learning, and well regulated print⯑ing-houſes.
There are two univerſities, one at Cracow, and the other at Vilna; the former, was under the direction of prieſts, called academicians; and the latter, ſuperintended by the Jeſuits: but in both, the courſe of ſtudy, was chiefly confined to Theology. Since the ſuppreſſion of the Jeſuits, the King has eſtabliſhed a committee of education, compoſed of members diſtinguiſhed either by high ſtation, or enlightened underſtandings. This committee has an abſolute power, in matters of education; appoints pro⯑feſſors, regulates their ſalaries, and directs their ſtudies. The advantages of this regulation, have already been ex⯑perienced. The univerſity of Cracow, has been called the mother of Poliſh literature, principally ſupplying all the other ſeminaries with profeſſors, and learned men; but the removal of the royal reſidence to Warſaw, together, with its civil and inteſtine commotions, have greatly obſcured its luſtre. Its moſt flouriſhing period, was under Sigiſ⯑mund Auguſtus, in the ſixteenth century, when ſeveral German reformiſts fled from the perſecutions of the Em⯑peror Charles V. and took refuge in this city. Theſe reformiſts gave verſions of ſome of the ſacred writings, and other theological publications, which ſpread the re⯑formed [170] religion, over great part of Poland. The protec⯑tion afforded by Sigiſmund Auguſtus to men of learning of all denominations, and the univerſal toleration, to every ſect of chriſtians, created a ſuſpicion, that he was inclined to the new church, had publickly renounced the catholic faith, and avowed the reformed religion.
Although, ſays Mr. Coxe, from the nature of the go⯑vernment, learning has never been widely diffuſed in Po⯑land; yet, there never have been wanting men of genius and literature, who have been an ornament to their coun⯑try; and perhaps, no nation can boaſt a more regular ſuc⯑ceſſion of excellent hiſtorians, or a greater variety of wri⯑ters, deeply converſant, in the laws, ſtatutes, and conſtitu⯑tion. Under Sigiſmund I. and his ſon Sigiſmund Auguſtus, the arts and ſciences began to be greatly diſtinguiſhed by Royal patronage. They were cheriſhed by ſome of the ſucceeding monarchs, particularly John Sobieſki; but [...]o prince has paid them more attention, than the preſent King, Staniſlaus Auguſtus. His munificence, in this par⯑ticular, has been attended with the happieſt effects. The Poliſh literati, have within a few years, given to the pub⯑lic, a much greater variety of elegant compoſitions, than ever appeared in any former period of the ſame length. What is more material, a taſte for ſcience, has ſpread itſelf among the nobles, and begins to be regarded as an ac⯑compliſhment. The enlargement of mind, derived from the licentious ſpirit of the nobles, from this new purſuit, has already weaned ſeveral of them, from their habits of [171] barbarous turbulence, and greatly civilized their civil de⯑portment. It may in time teach them, thoroughly to comprehend the true intereſt of their country, and the expedience of due ſubordination, hitherto deemed incom⯑patible with liberty; theſe petty deſpots will, perhaps, be induced to lay aſide, that contempt for their vaſſals; they will perceive, that the burghers, and peaſants, are the true ſupports of their country: and that Poland, wants nothing but juſtice, and order, to become as flouriſhing as the neighbouring ſtates.
The preſent King, ſtudiouſly encourages all attempts to refine and poliſh his native tongue; and for the promotion of learning, gives a dinner every thurſday to men of ſcience and abilities; his Majeſty himſelf preſides at table, and takes the lead in the graces of converſation, as much as in rank. The perſons admitted to this ſociety, read occaſionally, treatiſes upon different topics of hiſtory, natural philoſophy, and other miſcellaneous ſubjects. Poe⯑try is likewiſe cultivated at theſe meetings.
The eſtabliſhed religion in Poland, is that of the Ro⯑man catholic; and few people poſſibly are more zeaolus or bigotted in their way, which proceeds from the conſtant oppoſition, and the provocations they meet with, from the Lutherans and Calviniſts. There is a decree, that no perſon ſhall be elected king of Poland, without firſt ma⯑king a ſolemn profeſſion of the orthodox Roman catholic religion; and that the queen muſt either have been [172] brought up in that communion, or publickly declare herſelf a member of it. Neither Arians, Socinians, or Anabaptiſts, are not tolerated in Poland. The proteſtants by virtue of the treaty ſigned at Oliva, in the year 1735, ſolicited and obtained, a free exerciſe of their religion; but a great num⯑ber of their churches have been taken from them, and de⯑moliſhed, and ſuch open violation of the laws of juſtice and equity, are of late become ſo frequent, that the proteſtants at this time poſſeſs only twenty two churches in the cities and towns, and ſixty-five in the villages of Poland. The Greeks are equally oppreſſed, with the proteſtants; whilſt the Jews are indulged with innumerable priviliges, and abound ſo much, that the country is ſtyled the ‘Paradiſe of the Jews’; it is ſaid there are above two millions of Jews only in the villages of Poland. But to ſhew how great is the ſuperiority of the Popiſh religion, it muſt be obſerved, that the King is ſtiled Orthodoxus, as a title of honour, that St. Floridan, and St. Adalbert are worſhip⯑ped as the patron ſaints of Poland, that the number of monaſteries in this kingdom, amounts to 176, and of nunneries to 117; beſides two hundred and forty-ſix ſe⯑minaries, and thirty-one abbeys, and laſtly, the clergy are poſſeſſed of two thirds of the lands and revenues of the kingdom.
There are two archbiſhops, and fourteen biſhops. The primate of Poland, is the archbiſhop of Gneſna, who ſtiles himſelf the Pope's legate, borne, by virtue of a decree of the council of Lateran. His power is almoſt equal [173] to the King's, and has a golden croſs carried before him. When he viſits the King, the great chamberlain receives him at the ſtairs foot, and the King comes into the anti-chamber to meet him. During a vacancy in the throne, he is Inter-rex.
Neither the regular or ſecular clergy of Poland, are to be admired for their morals; though the people, as in all other Popiſh countries, give them abundance of reſpect; and, in moſt of their courts of judicature, ſome of the judges are of the clergy. Pluralities are allowed, and the clergy, make no ſcruple of living at a diſtance from their cures. The laity, on the contrary, are devout, and gene⯑rous in the benefactions, to their churches, and altars of the ſaints; but are not very compaſſionate towards the diſ⯑treſſed and poor, ſuffering frequently their own ſlaves and menial ſervants, to periſh for want of neceſſaries, and be⯑having to theſe unhappy wretches, as if they were of ano⯑ther ſpecies. Socinianiſm has made a great progreſs in this kingdom, during the laſt century; and there have been acts of ſtate, in ſeveral reigns, particularly in the laſt, for the extirpation of all people of that perſuaſion; notwith⯑ſtanding which, they ſuffer Mahometaniſm, and there are no leſs than 30,000 Tartars in Lithuania, who are allow⯑ed the free exerciſe of that religion. The Armenians, and others of the Greek church, have alſo, on the frontiers of Muſcovy, and Podolia, biſhops, abbots, and prieſts of their perſuaſion, with the free exerciſe of their religion; and, all diſſidents, are permitted to have churches without [174] bells, ſchools and ſeminaries, and are rendered capable of ſitting in inferior courts of juſtice, and in the tribunal ap⯑pointed, to receive appeals in matters of religion.
CHAP. IV. Of their Government, Revenues, &c.
THE Poles, when conſidered as members of the com⯑munity, are either nobles, citizens, (in which claſs merchants, artiſts and mechanics, are included), or pea⯑ſants, who are moſtly vaſſals to the nobles. It is not eaſy to eſtimate the number of inhabitants of Poland; but ſome have ſuppoſed the kingdom, together with Lithuania, to contain, 15,000,000, and when it is remembered that they have no colonies, have often enjoyed peace for many years, and poſſeſſing no fewer than 2,000,000, Jews, which are ſaid to dwell in their villages, excluſive of them in their towns and cities, the calculation may not appear greatly exaggerated.
The nobles of Poland, have from time immemorial reſided in the country, and each, inhabiting his own ſeat, or caſtle, manages his eſtate, by his vaſſals, or hired ſer⯑vants, [175] and maintains himſelf, and his whole family by a⯑griculture, breeding of bees, grazing, and hunting. Some of the nobility ſpend part of their time, in the cities or towns. There are among the Poliſh nobility, gentes or tribes, and theſe are divided into diſtinct families. Di⯑ſtinction is not owing to the different places, or provinces where they live, but are ranked according to the names and arms they bear. Though Poland has its princes, counts, and barons, yet, the whole nobleſſe, are naturally on a level, excepting, the difference ariſing from the poſts ſome of them enjoy. Hence all thoſe of noble birth call each other brothers.
The Poliſh nobility enjoy a great number of privileges, and, indeed, the boaſted liberty of the kingdom, remains only with the nobles; for, they have the power of life and death over their vaſſals, who, on that account groan under an oppreſſive ſlavery. Every nobleman, is abſolute lord of his eſtates; inſomuch, that the King cannot demand any ſubſidy from him, nor oblige him to maintain, or find quarter, for any ſoldiers.
The peaſants in Poland, as in all feudal governments, are ſlaves; but, they are not all in an equal ſtate of ſub⯑jection, they are diſtinguiſhed into two ſorts, the Germans, and the natives. During the reign of Boleſlaus the Chaſte, and particularly in that of Caſſimir the Great, many Ger⯑mans ſettled in Poland, who had the privilege on enjoying their own laws, and their deſcendants, ſtill continue the [176] poſſeſſion of ſeveral privileges, not given to the Poliſh peaſants. The good effects of theſe privileges, are very evident, in the general ſtate of their domeſtic oeconomy; their villages are better built, their eſtates better cultivated, than thoſe of the native Poles, they have more heads of cattle, pay their lords more punctually, and are much neater in their perſons and general appearance. The native peaſant has ever laboured under the tyranny and oppreſſion of his lord, and his ſlavery has always been extremely rigorous, until the time of Caſſimir the Great, when the lord could not put his priſoner to death with impunity. For in 1347, Caſſimir levied a fine, for the murder of a peaſant, and enacted, that in caſe of his deceaſe, without iſſue, his im⯑mediate heir ſhould inherit, and, that becauſe he was ca⯑pable of bearing arms, he ſhould be conſidered as a free⯑man.
By ſuch benevolent exertions and regulations, did this amiable monarch, endeavor to alleviate the miſerable vaſſalage of his ſubjects; but, they have all proved in⯑effectual, againſt the power and tyranny of the nobles, who have either eluded, or cauſed them to be abrogated. Even now, there are above an hundred laws unfavourable to the peaſants, which, among other greivances, erect ſummary tribunals, ſubject to no appeals, and impoſe the and impoſe the ſevereſt penalties on thoſe, who quit their habitations without leave. From ſuch numerous and oppreſſive edicts, to prevent their emigration, do the pea⯑ſants ſuffer ſuch extreme wretchedneſs, who cannot be de⯑tained [177] in their native country, but by the terror of the ſevereſt puniſhments.
The government of Poland is, with very great propriety ſtiled a republic, becauſe the king is ſo extremely limited in his prerogative, that he more reſembles the chief of a common-wealth, than the ſovereign of a powerful mo⯑narchy. The ſupreme legiſlative authority of the republic, reſides in the three eſtates of the realm, the king, the ſenate, and equeſtrian order, aſſembled in a national diet. The executive power, which was heretofore intruſted to the King and ſenate, is now, according to the new form of government, inveſted in the permanent council. The crown of Poland is elective, and all order of ſucceſſion pre⯑ſcribed: any perſon who endeavours to break this law, is conſidered as an enemy to his country, and, is liable to be puniſhed accordingly. No perſon can be choſen King, but a man of noble origin, that is, any gentleman, who is a native of Poland, and poſſeſſes landed property in the kingdom.
His Majeſty's titles are King of Poland; Great Duke of Lithuania; Duke of Ruſſia, Pruſſia, Maſſorie, Samo⯑gitia, Keivie, &c. The arms of the crown of Poland, are, in the firſt and fourth, gules, an eagle argent, crowned and armed, Or, with ſome other bearings for the duke⯑doms.
[178]The mode of election is ſomewhat ſingular. The place of aſſembly is in an open field, near the village of Wola, not far from Warſaw, it is ſurrounded with a ditch and a rampart, and has three gates, one of which is towards the eaſt, for Great Poland; the ſecond towards the ſouth, for Little Poland; and the third, facing the weſt, is for Lithuania. The ſenators, or counſellors of ſtate, are ac⯑comodated on this occaſion, with a wooden-houſe built for that purpoſe; without this edi [...]ice, the repreſentatives aſ⯑ſemble in a place called Kola, that is a circle or crown, and thoſe noblemen, who attend the election in perſon, pitch their tents at a greater diſtance from it. The ſovereign is elected, by the ſpiritual and temporal counſellors of ſtate; and, none but Roman catholics, dare appear at the ceremony. The King is elected on horſeback, and in caſe their ſhould be a turbulent minority, the majority im⯑mediately quell the tumult, by cut [...]ing them to pieces with their ſabres. The King elect, then ſwears to obſerve the Pacta Conventa, which are drawn up in the Poliſh lan⯑guage, and adminiſtred by the ſtates; after this, he is proclaimed King; and crowned in the cathedral of Cracow, by the arch biſhop of Gneſna. In ſigning the Pacta-Conventa, he engages to introduce no foreigners into the army or government; ſo that in fact, he is little more than the preſident of the ſenate, which is compoſed of a pri⯑mate, the arch-biſhop of Lémburgh, the biſhops, and 130 laymen; conſiſting, of the great officers of ſtate, the Pa⯑latines, and Caſtellans. The King is not permitted to enter into war, to aſſemble an army, conclude a peace, [179] or make any public alliances; neither is he inveſted with the power of ſending envoys on any important occaſion, impoſing taxes, contributions or cuſtoms, or of coining money, without the conſent of the ſtates. He can make no laws, determine no religious diſputes, nor can he alienate any of the royal demeſnes. Neither is he per⯑mitted to undertake, or carry into execution, any matters of importance, that concern the kingdom, without the conſent of the ſtates, duly convened. His chief preroga⯑tive is, the having the diſpoſal of the poſts of honour, and royal demeſnes; but, without conſulting the ſtates, he cannot increaſe or diminiſh the honorary poſts, nor confer upon one perſon, more than one office, neither is it in his power to diſplace any perſon, when once appointed.
Should the King be abſent, his place is ſupplied by the arch-biſhop of Gneſna, if that ſee is vacant, by the biſhop of Ploſko.
The conſtitution of Poland, is ſubject to ſo many changes, that it is difficult to ſpeak of it with certainty, for it is new modelled, with every King, according to the Pacta Conventa he is obliged to ſign, yet it ſtill preſerves the outlines, of a noble and free government.
The diets of Poland, are extraordinary, the former meet once in two or three years, and the latter, is ſum⯑moned by the King, upon critical emergencies; but, one diſſenting voice, renders all their deliberations ineffectual.
[180]On important meaſures, the King ſends the heads of the buſineſs that is to be treated of, which are given to the provincial diet aſſembled for the purpoſe of conſultation. The Staroſts are governors, and judges in their particular ſtaroſties, or diſtricts, and make reports of the opinion of the aſſemblies.
There are ten principal officers of ſtate, who are ſena⯑tors; the two great marſhalls, one of Poland, the other of Lithuania; the chancellor of the kingdom, and the chan⯑cellor of the duchy; the treaſurer of the kingdom, and of the duchy; the ſub-marſhal, or marſhal of the court of the kingdom, and the ſame of the court of the duchy. The King preſides over the public welfare, which is com⯑mitted to his care, and he conſults the ſtates about every thing relative to the kingdom. He is the protector both of the laws, and his ſubjects, and all courts of judicature are held in his name. He grants titles of nobility, but not privileges annexed to thoſe titles, which require the con⯑ſent of the ſtates; and, when no diet is aſſembled, he can conſult with the counſellors, and miniſters of his court, He can ſummon the nobility on any emergency, has the chief command of the army, and poſſeſſes many other prerogatives of leſs importance.
The moſt extraordinary characteriſtic, is the conſtitution of Poland, and, which ſeems peculiarly to diſtinguiſh this government from all others, both in ancient and modern times, is the liberum veto, or tribunal negative, [181] that is veſted in every member of a diet, or dietine, and which muſt ever be deſtructive of good order, and govern⯑ment; becauſe, they have not only (like the tribunes of ancient Rome), a power of putting a negative upon any law, but even of diſſolving the aſſembly. That every member of a numerous ſociety, ſhould be inveſted with ſuch a dangerous privilege, in the midſt of the moſt im⯑portant national tranſactions, is a circumſtance, at once incredible, pregnant with anarchy, and detrimental to the public welfare. The privilege originated under the ad⯑miniſtration of John Caſſimir, in the year 1652, when the diet of Warſaw, was debating upon tranſactions of the utmoſt conſequence, which required a ſpeedy determina⯑tion, one Sicinſki, nuntio of Ulpita in Lithuania, cried out, "I ſtop the proceedings." Having uttered theſe words, he quitted the aſſembly, and repairing immediately to the chancellor, proteſted; that as many acts had been propoſ⯑ed, and carried, contrary to the conſtitution of the repub⯑lic, if the diet continued to ſit, he ſhould conſider it as an infringment of the laws. The members were thunder⯑ſtruck at a proteſt of this nature, hitherto unknown. Warm debates enſued about the continuing or diſſolving the diet, at length, however, the venal and diſcontented faction, that ſupported the proteſt, obtained the majority; and the aſſembly broke up in confuſion.
From the continual revolutions, which the conſtitution of Poland ſuffers, we may eaſily infer, that notwithſtand⯑ing their boaſted liberty, the Poles are by no means a free [182] people. Indeed, their hiſtorians, however they may differ, in many points, unanimouſly agree in reprobating their affectation of liberty; the ſhadow, rather than the reality of freedom, which is in fact, merely a turbulent ſyſtem of ariſtocratic licentiouſneſs, where a few members of the community, are above the controul of law; while the ma⯑jority, are excluded from its protection. As a proof of this aſſertion, and prevailing diſcontent, and licentiouſneſs, no circumſtance can better evince its truth, than the fol⯑lowing extraordinary attempt upon the life of his preſent Majeſty. The particulars of which we beg leave to give our readers, as authentically related by Mr. Coxe. The ſtory is affecting, and intereſting to an Engliſhman, be⯑cauſe the perſon of his preſent Majeſty, Staniſlaus Auguſtus, is well known to many; and his reſidence in England, all muſt be acquainted with.
The King being conſidered by a ſet of confederates, as unlawfully elected, they imputed to his fatal elevation, all the various ills, under which the kingdom groaned, from the oppreſſion of the Ruſſians; and formed a plan, the moſt daring, modern hiſtory can mention, by an attempt to aſſaſſinate him.
A Poliſh nobleman, named Pulaſki, a general in the army of the confederates, was the perſon who formed the dangerous enterprize; and the conſpirators who executed it, were about forty in number, headed by three chiefs, Lukawſki, Strawenſki, and Koſinkſi. Theſe chiefs had [183] been engaged, and hired, by Pulaſki, who obliged them by the moſt ſolemn oath, either to deliver up the King alive, into his hands if poſſible, or elſe put him to death; they were to have thirty-ſeven perſons to aſſiſt them. On the 2d. of November, they obtained admiſſion into Warſaw, unſuſpected, or undiſcovered, by diſguiſing themſelves as peaſants, who came to ſell hay, which they brought in waggons, the more effectually to eſcape detection.
On Sunday night, the 3d. of September, 1771, a few of theſe conſpirators remained in the town; and the others, placed themſelves, when his majeſty was expected to paſs, at his uſual hour of returning to the palace. The King had been on a viſit to his uncle, prince Zartoriſki, grand chancellor of Lithuania, and was on his return from thence, between nine and ten o'clock. He was in his coach, ac⯑companied by his aid-de-camp, and fifteen, or ſixteen at⯑tendants; when attacked by the conſpirators, he was only at the diſtance of two hundred paces, from the prince's palace, who commanded the coachman to ſtop, on pain of inſtant death. They fired ſeveral ſhots into the car⯑riage, one of which, paſſed through the body of a Hey⯑duc, who endeavoured to defend his maſter from the vio⯑lence of the aſſaſſins. The aid-de-camp, together with all the remainder of the attendants, immediately fled, and endeavoured to ſecure themſelves. Mean while the King had opened the door of his carriage, to effect his eſcape, under the ſhelter of the night, which was extremely dark; he had even alighted, when the aſſaſſins ſeized him by the [184] hair, exclaiming with horrible execrations, ‘We have thee now, thy hour is come!’ —One diſcharged a piſtol at him, ſo very near, that he felt the heat of the flaſh, whilſt another cut him acroſs the head with his ſabre, and pe⯑netrated the bone; then ſeizing him by the collar, and mounting him on herſeback, they dragged him along the ground, between their horſes, at full gallop, for near five hundred paces, through the ſtreets of Warſaw. All was confuſion and diſorder, during this time at the palace, where the attendants who had deſerted their maſter, had ſpread the alarm. The foot-guards ran to the ſpot from whence the King had been conveyed, but found only his hat, which being bloody, increaſed their apprehenſions for his life. The whole city being in an uproar, the aſſaſſins profitted by the general confuſion; and finding the King almoſt incapable of breathing, from the violence with which they had dragged him, they mounted him on horſe⯑back, and redoubled their ſpeed, fearing to be overtaken. When they came to the ditch at Warſaw, they forced him to leap his horſe over, which in attempting the horſe fell, and broke his leg. They then mounted his Majeſty on another, all covered with dirt as he was, and having croſſed the ditch, began to rifle the King, by tearing off the eagle of the order of Pruſſia, which he wore round his neck, and the diamond croſs hanging to it. He intreated them to leave his handkerchief, to which they conſented; his tablets likewiſe eſcaped their rapacity. The aſſaſſins having thus plundered him, for the moſt part retired, with an intent, probably, to notify to their re⯑ſpective [185] leaders the ſucceſs of their enterprize, and the ap⯑proach of the King, as a priſoner. Only ſeven remained, of which Koſinſki was the chief. The night being dark they miſtook their way, and, as the horſes could not keep their legs, the King was obliged to follow them on foot, with only one ſhoe, the other being loſt in the dirt. They continued to wander in uncertain paths, without getting any diſtance from Warſaw; and remounting the King on horſeback, they were proceeding; two of them holding him on each ſide by the hand, and a third leading his horſe; when his Majeſty finding they had taken a road which led to a village called Burakow, warned them not to enter it, becauſe there were ſome Ruſſians ſtationed in that place, who might attempt to reſcue him. Then finding himſelf in pain, from the inconvenience of the poſture they held him in; he beſought them, ſince they were determined he ſhould proceed, at leaſt to give him another horſe and boot. This requeſt was complied with, and ignorant of their way, they at length found themſelves in a wood, a league diſ⯑tant from Warſaw. From the time they had paſſed the ditch, they repeatedly demanded of Koſinski, if it was not time to kill the King, and theſe demands were reiterated in proportion to the obſtacles and difficulties they encoun⯑tered. In the mean while Warſaw, was in the utmoſt con⯑fuſion. The guards were afraid to purſue their ſovereign, leaſt they ſhould be prompted to maſſacre his Majeſty, to ſavour their own eſcape.
This reflection plunged him into new uncertainties and embaraſſments. "I give you my word," anſwered his Majeſty, ‘that you ſhall ſuffer no harm; but, if you doubt my promiſe, eſcape, while there is yet time. I can find my way to ſome place of ſecurity, and will certainly direct your purſuers, to take a contrary road to that which you have choſen.’ Koſinſki could no longer contain him⯑ſelf, but, proſtrated at his feet, implored forgivneſs for the crime he had committed, and ſwore to protect him againſt every enemy, relying on his generoſity for pardon and preſervation. His Majeſty aſſured him of his ſafety; but judging it prudent to gain ſome aſylum without delay, he made towards a mill, at ſome diſtance off. Koſinſki knocked but in vain; no anſwer was given; he then broke a pane of glaſs in the window; and intreated ſhelter, for a noble⯑man who had been plundered by robbers. The miller refuſed, thinking them the banditti, and continued for ſome time to perſiſt in his denial. The King then ap⯑proached, and looking through the broken pane, prevailed with the miller, by ſaying, ‘If we were robbers, as you ſuppoſe, it would be very eaſy for us to break the whole window, inſtead of one pane of glaſs.’ This argument procured admittance, and the King wrote the following [188] note to general Coccei, colonel of the foot-guards. ‘By a kind of miracle, I have eſcaped from the hands of the aſſaſſins, and am now at the mill of Mariemont, come as ſoon as poſſible and take me from hence. I am wounded, but not dangerouſly.’ It was with great difficulty the King could perſuade any one to carry the note to Warſaw, the people of the mill imagining, he was a nobleman, juſt plundered by robbers, they feared leaſt they ſhould fall in with the troop. Koſinſki offered to reſtore what he had taken; but the King left him all, ex⯑cept the blue ribbon of the white eagle.
When the meſſenger arrived with the note, the joy and aſtoniſhment was incredible. Coccei inſtantly rode to the mill, followed by a detachment of the guards. He met Koſinſki at the door, with his ſabre drawn, who admitted him, as ſoon as he knew him. The King had ſunk into a profound ſleep, from extreme fatigue, and was ſtretched on the ground, covered with a miller's cloak. Coccei threw himſelf at his Majeſty's feet, calling him his ſovereign, and kiſſing his hand.
It is not eaſy to paint, or deſcribe, the aſtoniſhment of the miller, and his family; who inſtantly imitated Coccei's example, by throwing themſelves on their knees. The King returned to Warſaw, in the general's carriage and ſoon recovered the wound and bruiſes he had received. The diet at the requeſt of the King, remitted the capital puniſhment of the inferior conſpirators, and condemned [189] them only to work for life. By his benevolent interceſſion, the different modes of torture, and horrible puniſhments inflicted on regicides, were mitigated; and both Lukawski, and Strawenski, were only ſimply beheaded. Koſinski was detained under very ſtrict confinement, and was obliged to give evidence againſt his two companions.
On general Coccei's arrival at the mill, the firſt queſtion his Majeſty aſked, was, whether any of his attendants had ſuffered from the aſſaſſins, and, upon being informed, one of the Heyducs was killed on the ſpot, and another dangerouſly wounded, his mind, naturally feeling, now rendered more ſuſceptible by his late danger, was greatly affected, and his joy, at his own eſcape, conſiderably di⯑diminſhed.
Upon his return to Warſaw, continues Mr. Coxe, the ſtreets were illuminated, and crouded with people, who followed, inceſſantly crying "The King is alive." When he entered the palace, the doors were flung open, and per⯑ſons of all ranks were admitted in his preſence, to felicitate him on his eſcape. The ſcene was affecting beyond ex⯑preſſion, every one ſtruggled to get near him, to kiſs his hand, or even to touch his cloaths; all were ſo tranſported with joy, that they even loaded Koſinski with careſſes, and called him the ſaviour of their King. His Majeſty was ſo affected with theſe ſigns of zeal and affection, that he expreſſed in the moſt feeling manner, his ſtrong ſenſe of [190] their attachment, and declared it was the happieſt hour of his whole life.
The family of the Heyduc, who had ſaved the King's life, by the loſs of his own, was amply provided for; and, his body was buried with great pomp, with an elegant in⯑ſcription, expreſſive of the man's fidelity, and his own gratitude. The monument is a pyramid, ſtanding upon a ſarcophagus with a Latin and Poliſh inſcription, the tranſlation of which, is as follows.
‘Here lies Henry Butzau, who on the third of No⯑vember, 1771, oppoſing his own breaſt, to ſhield Stani⯑ſlaus Auguſtus from the weapons of nefarious paricides, was pierced with repeated wounds, and gloriouſly ex⯑pired. The King lamenting the death of a faithful ſub⯑ject, erected this monument as a tribute to him, and an incentive to others.’
Having ſpoken of the ſufferings of his preſent Majeſty of Poland, it may not be unacceptable to give ſome ac⯑count of the remarkable partition of the kingdom, which was planned ſoon after the King's eſcape; and inſtigated with ſuch profound ſecrecy, that it was ſcarcely ſuſpected, before it was carried into execution. The King of Pruſſia, the Empreſs Queen, and the Empreſs of Ruſſia, had en⯑tered into an alliance to diſmember the kingdom of Po⯑land. Theſe allied powers, acting in concert, ſet up their formal pretenſions to the reſpective diſtrict [...] [...]ordering [191] upon Brandenburg. For the King of Pruſſia, Poliſh or weſtern Pruſſia had long been an object of his ambition; excluſive of its fertility, commerce, and population, its local ſituation rendered it highly valuable to that monarch; it lay between his German dominions, and eaſtern Pruſſia, and while poſſeſſed by the Poles, cut off, at their will, all communication between them. During the courſe of the laſt general war, he experienced the moſt fatal effects from the disjointed ſtate of his territories. By the acquiſition of weſtern Pruſſia, his dominions would be rendered compact, and his troops in time of war, be able to march from Ber⯑lin to Koningſburg, without interruption. Almoſt all the ſouthern and eaſtern parts of the kingdom, bordering upon Hungary, together with the rich ſalt-works of the crown, were marked out for the Empreſs Queen of Hungary and Bohemia; and a large diſtrict of country about Mohilow, upon the banks of the Dnieper, for the Empreſs of Ruſſia. But though each of theſe powers, pretended a legal right to the territories allotted to them reſpectively, and pub⯑liſhed manifeſtoes in juſtification of the meaſures which they had taken, yet as they were conſcious, that the falſe reaſonings by which they ſupported their pretenſions, were too groſs to impoſe upon mankind, they forced the Poles to aſſemble a new diet, and threatened them if they did not conſent unanimouſly, to ſign a treaty, for the ceding of thoſe provinces to them, the whole kingdom ſhould be laid under a military execution, and treated as a conquered ſtate.
[192]In this extremity of diſtreſs, ſeveral of the Poliſh noble⯑men, proteſted againſt this violent act of tyranny, and re⯑tired into foreign ſtates, chuſing rather to live in exile, to have their landed property confiſcated, than be inſtrumen⯑tal, in ſigning the ruin of their country; but the King was prevailed on, to put his ſignature to the act, and his example was followed by many of his ſubjects. As the troops of the three courts, had poſſeſſion of the greateſt part of Poland, nothing remained towards compleating the partition, but the acceſſion of the Empreſs of Ruſſia, who regarded with a jealous eye, the introduction of foreign powers into Poland. Poſſeſſing an uncontrolled aſcen⯑dancy over the whole country, ſhe could propoſe no ma⯑terial advantage, from the formal acquiſition of a part, and muſt purchaſe a moderate addition to her territory, by a conſiderable ſurrender of her authority. The King of Pruſſia, well acquainted with the intereſts of Ruſſia, in re⯑gard to Poland, and the capacity of the Empreſs to diſ⯑cern thoſe intereſts, forbore opening any negociation, on the ſubject of the partition, until ſhe was involved in a Turkiſh war. He then ſent his brother, Prince Henry, to Peterſburgh, who ſuggeſted to the Empreſs, that the Houſe of Auſtria was forming an alliance with the Porte, which, if it took place, would create a moſt formidable combination againſt her; that the friendſhip of that Houſe was to be purchaſed, by acceding to the partition; that, upon this condition, the Emperor was willing to renounce his connection with the Grand Signior, and would ſuffer the Ruſſians to proſecute the war without moleſtation. [193] The Queen, anxious to puſh her conqueſts againſt the Turks, and dreading the interpoſition of the Emperor in that quarter; perceiving likewiſe, between the Courts of Vienna and Berlin, that it would not be in her power, at the preſent juncture, to prevent the intended partition, cloſed with the propoſal, and ſelected no inconſiderable portion of the Poliſh territories for herſelf. The treaty was ſigned in Feb. 1772, by the Ruſſian, Auſtrian, and Pruſſian plenipotentiaries.
This violent diſmemberment and partition of Poland, has juſtly been conſidered as the firſt great breach in the modern political ſyſtem of Europe, which awaited in anxious expectation, what would be the iſſue of this un⯑expected union; yet ſuch was the ſecrecy with which the partitioning powers proceeded, that for ſome time after the ratification of the treaty, only vague conjectures were entertained, even at Warſaw, concerning their real inten⯑tions; and the late Lord Cathcart, the Engliſh miniſter at Peterſburgh, was able to obtain no authentic informa⯑tion of its ſignature, until two months after the event.
It would be too tedious to enter into a detail of the pleas urged by the three powers, in favour of their ſeveral demands, and no leſs unintereſting to lay before the rea⯑der, the anſwers and remonſtrances of the King and ſe⯑nate, as well as the appeals to the other ſtates, which had guaranteed the poſſeſſions of Poland. The courts of London, Paris, Stockholm, and Copenhagen, remon⯑ſtrated [194] againſt the uſurpations, but remonſtrances without aſſiſtance can avail but little. Poland ſubmitted to the diſmemberment, not without the moſt violent ſtruggles, and now, for the firſt time, ſeverely felt, and lamented the fatal effects of faction and diſcord.
The conduct of the late King of Pruſſia, has greatly oppreſſed the kingdom; his exactions were enormous, and his penalties the moſt ſevere. He obliged the prieſts to abandon their abbeys, convents, and cathedrals; and the nobles were forced to quit their lands. From all his pro⯑ceedings, it would appear, that his Pruſſian Majeſty ac⯑knowledged no right, but his own; no pretenſions, but thoſe of the Houſe of Brandenburg; and no rule of juſ⯑tice, but his own pride and ambition. Even to his death he had an eye to a change in the conſtitution, and endeavoured to make the crown hereditary, inſtead of being elective.
The revenues of the King ariſe chiefly from the crown⯑lands, the ſalt-mines in the Palatinate of Cracow, ancient tolls and cuſtoms, particularly thoſe of Elbing and Dant⯑zic, the rents of Marienburg, Dirſhau and Rogenhus, and of the government of Cracow and diſtrict of Nie⯑poliomicz; but, by the late diſmemberment, Poland loſt nearly half her annual income. The King, however, draws from the public treaſury £.74,074 ſterling; which, in addition to the remaining royal demeſnes, and ſome ſtarioſties granted for his uſe, make the preſent income the ſame as before the diſmemberment. Out of this income, [195] he only pays his houſhold expences, and menial ſervants; the ſalary of the great officers of ſtate, and the other ge⯑neral expences, being ſupplied from the public fund. The whole revenue of the government, including the royal demeſnes and ſtarioſties lately granted to the King, amount to £. 443,938; out of which, when the King has received his privy purſe, there remains only £. 248,938: 1 s. a ſum ſo ſmall, that it hardly ſeems in any wiſe equal to the purpoſes for which it is deſigned. And yet it is nearly adequate to the ordinary current expences: for the regu⯑lar army is ſmall; the great officers of ſtate receive little or nothing from the public treaſury, being amply rewarded with the royal fiefs, which are ſo numerous and profitable; each palatinate pays its own officers, from its private trea⯑ſury; while the ſeveral judges, juſtices of the peace, and other civil officers, who enjoy the territorial juriſdiction, may enrich themſelves ſufficiently, by extortions and op⯑preſſions, without any ſalary.
CHAP. V. Of their Army, Laws, and Puniſhments.
THE ordinary army of the Poles conſiſts of 36,000 men in Poland, and 12,000 in Lithuania, cantoned into crown-lands. The King has a corps of 2000 troops [196] in his own pay, and entirely dependent upon himſelf: theſe troops chiefly conſiſt of ulans, or light horſe, who furniſh alternately the eſcort which accompanies his Majeſty. The ulans are chiefly Tartars, many of them Mahometans, and are greatly to be relied on for their fidelity. The corps is compoſed of gentlemen and vaſſals, all forming in ſqua⯑dron together, though differently armed; they both, in⯑diſcriminately, carry ſabres and piſtols, but the gentlemen, only bear lances, of about ten feet long, inſtead of which, the others are armed with carabines. Their dreſs is a high fur cap, a green and red jacket, pantaloons of the ſame colour, which cover the boots as low as the knee, and a petticoat of white cloth, deſcending to the knee. Their lances, at the end of which is faſtened a long ſwal⯑low-tailed flag, of black or red cloth, are ſhorter and weaker than thoſe of the Auſtrian croats; but they carry and uſe them much in the ſame manner, and with no leſs dexterity. The men are well grown, and handſome, but, greatly disfigured with their petticoats and pantaloons. The horſes on which they are mounted, are about fourteen hands high, of remarkable ſpirit, and with great ſtrength of ſhoulder. Poland is much eſteemed, for its breed of horſes; and the King of Pruſſia procures his light cavalry from this country. The breed has been much injured by the late civil wars, and the nobility are now chiefly ſupplied from Tartary.
[197]The armies of Poland and Lithuania are independent of each other, being ſeparately commanded, and under the directions of their reſpective generals; but, in time of war, the King in perſon generally leads the army. Every Poliſh gentleman has a right to maintain as many troops as he pleaſes, which occaſions perpetual petty diſſentions and diſputes, ſo that the whole kingdom may be a ſcene of endleſs commotion; it redounds, therefore, greatly to the honour of the natural diſpoſition of the Poles, that, amid theſe incentives to confuſion, a much greater degree of tranquility is maintained, than could well be conceived.
In delineating the military eſtabliſhment, we ſhould not omit the Ruſſian troops, which, having been long quar⯑tered in this country, may be conſidered as forming part of the national army.
The whole kingdom till lately was under the pro⯑tection, of Ruſſia, who ruled over it, with as much unbounded authority as over one of its own provinces. The King in effect, was but a vice-roy, whilſt the Ruſ⯑ſian ambaſſador had the real ſovereignty, and regulated all the affairs of the kingdom, according to his own direction. The empreſs maintained within the country near 10,000 ſoldiers. Every garriſon was compoſed of Ruſſian and na⯑tive troops; a thouſand of the former were ſtationed at Warſaw, and each gate of the town, guarded by a Ruſ⯑ſian and Poliſh centinel. Such was the ſituation of Poland, and to what a wretched ſtate, muſt that country be re⯑duced [198] which owes its tranquility to the interpoſition of a foreign army.
Atrocious crimes ſuch as murder, &c. are puniſhed by beheading or hanging; leſſer delinquencies, by whipping, hard-labour, and impriſonment. The nobles never ſuffer any corporal puniſhment; but are liable only to impriſon⯑ment and death. The criminal cauſes of the nobility are decided in the ducal ſupreme court, to which the ſuperiors are ſummoned as aſſeſſors; however, an appeal lies to the King, except in cauſes of wilful murder, burning of houſes, robbery, rapes or open violence. Eccleſiaſtical cauſes are tried by the chancellor, aſſiſted by the ſuperintendant and provoſts. If any diſputes happen to ariſe between the duke and nobility, they are decided only by the King in perſon. The adminiſtration of juſtice in the towns, belong either to the magiſtrate, or the prefect of the diſtrict, in which the defendant lives, according to the nature of the cauſe; and the ſecond or laſt inſtance, or hearing, is at the ducal court. Torture was aboliſhed in 1776, by an edict of the diet, introduced by the influence of the King; a re⯑gulation as expreſſive of his Majeſty's judgment, as of his benevolence. It is an infinite ſatisfaction, to ſee the rights of humanity, extending themſelves into countries, where they had been but little known; a circumſtance that muſt caſt a great reflexion on thoſe nations, which like France, have attained the higheſt pitch of civilization, and yet, has retained to this period, the uſeleſs, and barbarous cuſtom of torture. In laws relating to debtors, the creditor proceeds [199] againſt the debtor, at his own expence; and, until the trial is finiſhed, allows him three-halfpence a day for his main⯑tenance; when the debt is proved, the creditor is releaſed from the above-mentioned contribution. The debtor continues in priſon at the diſcretion of the creditor, until the debt is diſcharged; and if he has no means of ſubſis⯑tance, is obliged to maintain himſelf, by working with the other delinquents in cutting wood, ſawing ſtone, or clean⯑ing the ſtreets. In caſe a gentleman contracts a debt, an action lies againſt his lands and goods, and not againſt his perſon, unleſs he gives a note of hand with a double ſig⯑nature, one intended as an aſcertainment of the debt, the other as a renunciation of his exemption from arreſts; but a perſon of high diſtinction, even though he ſhould bind himſelf by this engagement, can bid defiance to all danger of impriſonment.
From this ſketch of the adminiſtration of juſtice in this country, the expediency of a thorough reformation is very apparent. But as any innovations in the courts of juſtice, calculated to produce any eſſential benefit, muſt materially infringe on the privileges of the nobles, and counter-act the national prejudices, the moſt uſeful code can ſcarcely ex⯑pect to receive the ſanction of the diet.
A DESCRIPTION OF PRUSSIA. From Buſching, Hanway, Marſhall, Rieſbec, Moore, &c.
[]CHAP. I. Of the Country, Productions, Cities, &c..
PRUSSIA is bounded partly by water, and partly by other countries. Towards the north, it is bor⯑dered by Samogitia; towards the eaſt, by the Lithua⯑nian Palatinates of Trocko and Podolia; on the ſouth lies Poland, and Maſovia; and on the weſt, it is bounded by Poliſh Pruſſia, and the Baltic Sea. Its length from the northern extremity near Deutſch-Krottengen, to Soldau, is forty German miles, and its breadth from the great duchy of Lithuania near Schiwind to the weſtern coaſt of Samland is twenty-four German miles. In other places it is much narrower. Each German mile is nearly equal to five Engliſh.
The kingdom of Pruſſia thus bounded, does not take in Pruſſia Royal, which was ſubject to Poland, [168] but only that which was called Ducal Ruſſia, and belonged to the houſe of Brandenburg. Poliſh Pruſſia, in the year 1771, was ſeized, by the king of Pruſſia, from Poland; as alſo the cities of Dantzic, Thorn, and Elbing, free cities, then under the protection of Poland. So that the dominions of the king of Pruſſia are the largeſt of any of the German princes, except thoſe of the houſe of Au⯑ſtria. They contain 3650 ſquare German miles, which is equal to the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily, and Portugal, put together.
As many parts of the king of of Pruſſia's dominions lie ſcattered abroad, it may not be improper to enumerate them. In Poland, he has Royal Pruſſia; in Upper-Sax⯑ony, Brandenburg, Pomerania, and Swediſh Pomerania; in Lower-Saxony, Magduberg, and Halberſtadt; in Weſt⯑phalia, Ravenſburg, Lingen, Cleves, Meurs, and Mark; in the Netherlands, Gelder; in Switzerland, Neufchatel; and add to theſe, Eaſt Frieſland, Lippe. Gulich, and Tecklenburg.
With reſpect to the climate of Ducal Pruſſia, the laſt two months of ſpring, and the firſt two ſummer months, are temperate, warm, and pleaſant, and the weather gene⯑rally very favourable to ripen the fruits of the earth: but, before and after theſe mouths, the air is cold and piercing, the autumn being often wet, and the winter ſevere. The air, however, is well purified, by high winds, and fre⯑quent ſtorms.
[169]The chief rivers are the Viſtula, ſpoken of in our de⯑ſcription of Poland, the Pregel, the Memel, the Paſſar⯑ge and the Alle. Theſe are partly navigable, but at certain times of the year, and in high winds, are apt to overflow their banks, and cauſe dreadful inundations.
The country is watered alſo, by ſeveral large bays, lakes, and canals, which yield great plenty of fiſh; and the convenience of a water communication between ſeve⯑ral towns, for the conveyance of merchandize, &c.
The bay or lake Friſche-Haf, is from one and a quarter, to three German miles in breadth, and twelve in length; and has a communication with the Baltic. Its mouth into the ſea, is an Engliſh mile over, and its depth twelve feet. The bay Fiſche-Haf, is thirteen German miles long, and ſix broad; and joins the ſea near Memel, where it is and Engliſh mile broad, and nineteen feet deep. The coaſts are every where inhabited by fiſhermen, called Curen.
There are a great number of Inland lakes, from one to eight German miles long, and one or two in breadth. Thoſe of Spirding, Angeſburg, Rein, and Drauſen, are the principal.
The ſoil produces plenty of corn, eſculent herbs, fruits, and paſturage. Pruſſia abounds with flocks and herds, and exceeding fine horſes. Its chief commodities are [170] wool, honey, wax; pitch, pit coal, flax, hemp, hops, and buck-wheat.
This country alſo affords plenty of game, as white and common hares, elks, ſtags, deer, roebucks, and wild boars; is is alſo infeſted with beaſts of prey, as lynxes, wolves, foxes, and bears. In Little Lithuania, are fine flocks of ſheep, and very excellent horſes.
There are ſome few woods, but theſe are diminiſhing, particularly, thoſe of oak. Among other productions of this country, the Ruſſian manna, called ſchwadengruſſe is found in the meadows, on the top of a kind of graſs, and gathered in the morning, whilſt the dew lies on it. Am⯑ber is found in great quantities, on the coaſts of the Baltic, in Ruſſia, eſpecially on the Samland ſhore. It owes its origin to a ſulphurous matter, and is pellucid, and gener⯑ally of a yellow colour. That it was once in a fluid ſtate is manifeſt, from the number of flies, ſpiders, and other inſects, &c. which are found frequently incloſed in it. Amber is found chiefly in large trees, buried under ground, in a vitriolic earth. The profits ariſing from it, is one of the Pruſſian regalia, and amount annually, to about 26,000 dollars. It is chiefly uſed by turners, who make a variety of toys of it.
The beautiful red colour, ſo renowned in Pruſſia, and called St. John's blood, is made of the eggs of a worm, or ſmall inſect, there found. The country contains ſome iron [171] ore, but yields neither ſalt, wine, nor minerals; being for the moſt part, a plain, champaign country.
The late King having taken ſome pains, to promote agriculture, the farmer ſeems more at eaſe, than any other claſs of men. The trading part of the people, and the army, are compelled to conſume the productions of their own country; and of courſe, their proviſions are dearer, than thoſe of other countries. The late king has cultivated large tracts of waſte land, drained moraſſes, and built, and improved many hundred villages. In almoſt every village, is a nobleman whoſe principal occupation is agriculture; and ſeeds are imported from Poland, Ruſſia, England, and other countries. There is a privy coun⯑ſellor, by name Brenkenhoff, a man, who born without one penny, has made himſelf worth millions, by his induſtry and agriculture. He ſent for rye from Archangel, which ſucceeded ſo well, that his ſeeds were begged throughout Pomerania, Sileſia, Brandenburg, and Ruſſia; and, the country gained conſiderable ſums, which before uſed to be paid to the Poles and Ruſſians, for this commodity. In conſequence of this, whenever Mr. Brenkenhoff, had any thing to aſk of the King, for himſelf, or his province, he always couched his requeſt, in the following manner. "Had I not brought rye from Archangel, your Majeſty, and your ſubjects, would not have had the many thouſands you now poſſeſs. It is fit therefore, and proper, that you ſhould grant me my requeſt." Mr. Brenkenhoff has im⯑ported large quantities of camels, and buffaloes, from Aſia; [172] the latter of which, ſeems to thrive very well, but camels do not ſucceed ſo well. Rearing of ſheep, and the culti⯑vation of tobacco, are next to the corn trade, the great reſources of the country. Speculative farmers make a great quantity of coarſe ſilk; 12,000lb. of it are woven here annually.
CHAP. II. Of the Cities.
THE chief cities belonging to the King of Pruſſia, are Koningſberg, Berlin, Potsdam, Breſlau, and Dantzic. There are many others, but it would be endleſs to deſcribe them, and indeed to little purpoſe, as they con⯑tain nothing very curious.
The capital of the whole kingdom is Konningſberg; it is ſituated in N. Latitude, 54°. 46. It is a fine large city, the rampart round which, is ſeven Engliſh miles, it has thirty-two ravelins and eight gates. This rampart in⯑cloſes ſeveral gardens, the large caſtle, moat, and ſome meadows and fields. The whole circuit of the city, is above eight Engliſh miles; the number of houſes about [173] 3800, Koningſberg properly conſiſts of three towns, joined together, and of ſeveral ſuburbs. One part of the town, which is the moſt modern, ſtands on an iſland, form⯑ed by the Pregel, and the buildings are erected upon piles of alder, which, by length of time, are become as hard as iron. In this part ſtands the fine cathedral, in which is a famous organ, conſiſting of 5000 pipes, and finiſhed in the year 1721.
The city is about the ſize of Copenhagen, has ſeveral palaces, and has ſeven bridges over the Pregel, (one of which conſiſts of five arches, and is 160 feet long), and being ſituated at the mouth, where it diſcharges itſelf into the Friſche-Haf bay; and this bay opening itſelf into the Baltic ſea, it has a commodious port, and is a place of good trade. It lies about eighty miles eaſt of Dantzic, has a univerſity, twenty-five churches, fourteen of which are Lutheran, and eleven Calviniſts, and a Roman Catho⯑lic church; an academy of ſciences of fine arts and paint⯑ing, with public libraries, fine hoſpitals, and many public edifices, with handſome gardens; here is alſo a palace built in the form of an oblong ſquare, and the area within is 136 paces long, and 75 broad. One ſide has apartments for the Royal family, and the three others, are appropriated for offices of ſtate. In one corner of the quadrangle, is a tower, having 284 ſteps to the top, which command a view of the whole city and country round. Here is a charitable fund, from which 800 indigent perſons receive weekly penſions; beſides thoſe who are ſupported in alms-houſes [174] and hoſpitals. The city is lighted in the manner of Paris, with candles in lanthorns, hung on lines tied acroſs the ſtreets.
Koningſberg has always made a conſiderable figure in commerce, and ſhipping, and was formerly one of the Hans-towns. Koningſberg contains 50,000 inhabitants, and 8000 ſoldiers. Moſt of the inhabitants are German Lutherans; but here is a ſmall colony of French Calvi⯑niſts. The Poliſh and Lithuanian languages are here ſpoken.
The buildings are in a vile ſtate, and moſtly old; the city is a great collection of houſes and ſtreets, without gance beauty or order; even our grammar ſchools, are ſuperior to their academies. Koningſberg has a conſider⯑able trade in hemp and flax. It is ſeven German miles or thirty five Engliſh, from Palaw the ſea port, ſo that only one ſmall veſſel can come up to the town. The ri⯑ver is very narrow here, but there are ſome very pleaſant gardens on its banks.
Berlin is in the marquiſate of Brandenburg, pleaſantly ſituated in a fruitful country, on the river Spree, having vineyards on one ſide, meadows on another, and a foreſt on the third, ſtored with all manner of game. It lies in N. latitude 52°. 30.14 degrees eaſt of London, and 45 miles weſt of Frankfort upon Oder. It is the capital of the marquiſate, and the reſidence of the King. It is di⯑vided [175] into two parts by the river, the north part of which is properly Berlin, the ſouthern part is called Coln, where ſtands the electoral palace, a magnificent, free ſtone ſtruc⯑ture. The town is well built, and the ſtreets are remark⯑able large, wide, ſpacious, and well paved, with plantations of trees. Frederick-ſtreet is two Engliſh miles and a half long; others, which go off at the right angles are a mile, or a mile and a half long. The ſquares and public places are ſpacious, the whole encompaſſed with a wall, and a regular modern fortification. Canals being cut from this city, to the rivers Oder and Elbe, and the one falling into the Baltic, and the other into the German ocean, renders it one of the firſt trading towns in Germany. It may be reckoned one of the cities in Europe. It has a few, very magnificent buildings; the reſt are neat houſes, built with a fine white free-ſtone, generally one, or at moſt two ſtories high; but the finiſhing within, does not cor⯑reſpond with the elegance of the outſide. Soldiers being quartered in private houſes, and are generally on the ground floor looking to the ſtreet, and there being at ſome times near 200,000 men, here in arms, the houſes are ge⯑nerally full of them. Of the public edifices uſually viſited by travellers, are the King's palace; that of his brothers; the arſenal; the churches of Notra-Dame, St. Nicolas, St. Martin's, the Romiſh chapel, the opera houſe, the equeſtrian ſtatue of Fredirick I. &c. The front of the arſinal, which forms one ſide of the palace, would be ex⯑tremely fine, but is loaded with ornament, ſimilar to thoſe on the ſcreen of the prince of Wales's houſe in Pall-Mall. [176] The building is full of uſeful arms. The Romiſh chapel is a very plain, heavy doric edifice, with a cupola at top, and is by far the moſt elegible place of worſhip in the city, but has a very elegant portico. The opera houſe, is a modern building, on a very grand ſcale, ſomething like the manſion-houſe in London, but with conſiderable more depth, It has this inſcription in front. FREDERICUS REX, APOLLINI ET MUSIS. The roof within is ſupported by pillars, which makes it a fine ſaloon, but they rather ob⯑ſtruct the ſcenes. It has three galleries, and is reckoned to hold, 2000 perſons. The orcheſtre is paid by the King, and conſiſts of fifty performers; indeed the whole expence of the opera is defrayed by the King. In the upper gal⯑leries, on each ſide of the ſtage, are ſix trumpeters ſeated, who ſalute the Royal family on their entrance and going out, with martial muſic; but the late King, would not have this compliment paid to him. The equeſtrian ſtatue of Frederick I. is a fine performance. The horſe is re⯑markably well executed, and there is great ſpirit in the attitude of the figure. It ſtands upon a pedeſtal, with four human figures, as large as life, one at each corner. This ſtatue ſtands on the Pont Neuf, a new bridge built over the river Spree.
In the corner of one of the ſquares, is a ſtatue of Mar⯑ſhal Schwenin, repreſented, holding the enſign, with which he advanced, at the famous battle of Prague. Perceiving his troops on the point of going, he ſeized this from the officer's hands, whoſe duty it was to carry it, and marched [177] towards the enemy, calling out "Let all but cowards fol⯑low me." The troops aſhamed to abandon their general, charged once more, and turned the fortune of the day. But the brave old marſhal was killed in the eighty-fourth year of his age.
Inſtead of ſaints and crucifixes, the late King intended, to ornament the churches of Berlin, with the portraits of men who had been uſeful to the ſtate. Thoſe of the marſhals Schwerin, Keith, Winterfield, and ſome others, are already placed in the great Lutheran church.
The moſt faſhionable walk in Berlin, is in the middle of one of the principal ſtreets. Before the houſes on each ſide, there is a cauſway, and between theſe two cauſeways are fine gravel walks planted with lime-trees. Tents are pitched under theſe, and ice, lemonade, and other refreſh⯑ments ſold. The regimental muſic practice here, in the ſummer, and the company often walk in the evening till it is very late.
The ſoldiers here in garriſon, are generally pretty quiet, and the police of the town is tolerably well regulated; but, there are ſome kind of irregularities ſays Moore, that pre⯑vail in the higheſt degree. Public courtezans are more numerous than in any other town in Europe, in proportion to the number of inhabitants. They appear openly at the windows in the day time, beckon to paſſengers as they walk in the ſtreets, and ply for employment, in any way [178] they pleaſe without diſturbance from the magiſtrate. It ſeems to be a received opinion here, that the peace and happineſs of the community, are not interrupted by this ſpecies of licentiouſneſs; therefore no one is allowed to moleſt or abuſe thoſe who have choſen this way of life for a profeſſion; and, as little attention is paid to thoſe who frequent the chambers of theſe ladies, as if they ſtept into any other houſe or ſhop, to purchaſe any other com⯑modity.
Another ſpecies of debauchery is ſaid alſo to prevail in this capital, but Dr. Moore imagines what is ſaid of it, is much exaggerated.
The better kind of citizens and manufacturers, live in⯑tirely among thoſe of their own rank, and without affec⯑ting the manners of the courtiers, or ſtooping to the mean debauchery of the commonalty, maintain the decency, plainneſs, and modeſty of the German church.
The ſociety into which ſtrangers may be admitted, in this capital, is not various or extenſive. The Pruſſian officers of the higher ranks, whoſe time is not intirely engroſſed, like that of their inferiors, by the duties of their profeſſion, live moſtly with their own families, or with each other. The late king did not approve of their forming intimacies with foreign miniſters, or with ſtran⯑gers.
[179]The entrance into Berlin, is airy and elegant; the ſtreets are regular and clean, and the houſes uniform. The number of inhabitants, are reckoned at 100,000, and there are from 12,000, to 30,000 men, always in garri⯑ſon. The palace is the firſt object that ſtrikes the eye of the traveller; but one of the ſquare ſides is an old build⯑ing, and the wall of the grand front, being ſeven or eight feet thick, the rooms within do not receive ſufficient light from the windows, to ſhew them to advantage. When Hanway was there in 1750, the apartments in the palace, were adorned with ſilver, in every ſhape; and ſo maſſive, that the faſhion of it came to no more than ſeven per cent. ſo that 4,000,000, of dollars might be realized on any emergency; but Marſhall tells us, that when he was there twenty years afterwards, the late King had melt⯑ed down the greateſt part of it, for the war expences, and that very little of it was reſtored. Here are pictures of Charles V. and his Empreſs, the frames of which are ſil⯑ver, and weighed 660lb. each, and a grand crown luſtre, that weighed near a ton weight; alſo a muſic gallery in ſilver, and ſo on: but Marſhall ſays, when he was there in 1760, moſt of the furniture for a royal palace, was very mean. There are ſome fine pictures, and ſeveral of Bar⯑berini, the celebrated female dancer. The throne in the audience chamber is velvet embroidered with gold, in a grand taſte, but there is nothing extraordinary otherwiſe, but a bed of crimſon, and a clock, which has 200 cy⯑phers with electroral crowns, all ſet with pearls, and the rooms, are in the ſame taſte. In this bed it is uſual to [180] lodge perſons of the blood royal on their marriage nights.
The King's, library, would be deemed a mean apart⯑ment for a common ſchool. It is open to the public certain hours in the day. Here is a collection of 500 bi⯑bles, of different languages and editions. Here is the firſt bible printed in America; one printed in 1450; the firſt printed in the German language, and the identical bible which Charles I. of England, uſed when he was beheaded; and preſented to the elector of Brandenburg, by Doctor Juxlen.
The cabinet of curioſites, has among other things, two cannon balls, which meeting in the air, the warmth of the iron, (or perhaps being made red hot) with the violence of the motion, united them together. An oak with ſtags horns. The ſtag having been hunted with great violence, ran his horns into a young tree, and there expired; and the tree growing, the horns at length appeared, as a natural production.
In 1750 the late King, was preparing ſeveral amuſe⯑ments, for the entertainment of Frederick marquis of Bar⯑rille, who married his eldeſt ſiſter, the moſt diſtinguiſhed of which was the carnival, and the expences amounted to 70,000 crowns. This entertainment conſiſted of qua⯑drilles, or four companies, in the dreſſes of Romans, Car⯑pathians, Grecians and Perſians; all mounted on horſes [181] richly capariſoned, in the ſame manner; each party being compoſed of ſix combatants. The firſt was con⯑ducted by the prince of Pruſſia; the other three, by his two brothers, and the marquis, the King's couſin. They had alſo the arms of the ſeveral nations, and were followed each by a band of muſic, proper to the reſpective coun⯑tries; and habited and attended, after the ſame manner. The proceſſion of the whole, made a ſplendid ſhew; but to Mr. Hanway, who was preſent, it was only of a thea⯑trical kind, for he ſaw but little of the pride and beauty of horſes or horſemanſhip, nor was the area alotted for the entertainment, half large enough. What rendered the firſt trial ridiculous, was, its being exhibited by the light of lamps, the greater part of which, was blown out by the wind. However, the next exhibition, of theſe tilts and tournaments, was in broad day; and the prizes were allotted to thoſe who were judged to perform beſt; without any other bloodſhed, than that of one of the princes cutting his toe with his own ſword.
A mock battle was afterwards fought, which was in⯑comparably a more grand entertainment. Four thouſand men being marched out in the morning early, about a German mile from the city, near the village Britz, were followed by another detachment, of the ſame number. The huſſars and cuiraſſiers had ſeveral ſkirmiſhes in the way. Both armies plied their field artillery warmly; at length a rivulet was paſſed, a wood was attacked, and the enemy driven from it to a village, which was carried ſword in hand. After this, they went through all the various [182] evolutions, and exerciſes, of both cavalry and infantry, as might be ſuppoſed in a real engagement, changing their poſition, on a tract of about two Engliſh miles, during the ſpace of three hours. At this ſhow almoſt the whole city of Berlin was preſent. There are ſometimes reviews here of 30,000 men, and there manoeuvres will continue three days. Dr. Moore was at one of theſe.
Berlin, by ſtrangers, has been called a little Paris, the French language, being almoſt as well underſtood, as the German. The city abounds in elegant ſtructures, and is computed near one third as large as London, yet not con⯑taining above one eighth part of the inhabitants; from whence it may eaſily be accounted, why graſs is found growing in many of their capital ſtreets. The whole of this city, beſpeaks but little variety. It is about four miles and a half long, and about three miles broad; but within this incloſure, are many gardens, and ſome fields, but not more than 6000 houſes, whereas in Paris, there are near 30,000. The emptineſs of many places, is a ſingular contraſt to the magnificence of the buildings; nor is the contraſt of this magnificence, with the circumſtances of the people, leſs ſtriking. Whilſt you are gazing at the beauty of a build⯑ing, in the firſt ſtyle of architecture, finely ſtuccoed, with a magnificent front, and all the outward appearance of a ducal reſidence; on a ſudden, a window ſhall open on the lower ſtory, and a cobler ſhall bring out a pair of boots, and hang them up under your noſe, to dry the leather. Loſt in wonder at this phenomenon, the ſecond ſtory [183] window ſhall open, and a breeches-maker ſhall treat the eye, with a pair of new waſhed breeches; ſoon after this, another window ſhall open, in the ſame ſtory, and a tay⯑lor ſhall hang out a waiſtcoat, or ſome woman ſhall throw fil [...]h upon his head. A little further on, a palace of the Corinthian order ſhall ſtrike the eye, and you ſhall ſup⯑poſe it belonging to ſome prince of the blood. Scarce have your wandering eyes reached the top, but you are ſaluted by a Jew, who aſks you, if you have any thing to ſwop; then caſt your eyes a flight lower, and behold, ſhirts hanging to dry, belonging to an officer, who is ſhaving himſelf, and whom you would hardly conceive to have two ſhirts belonging to him. You may walk on through two or three ſtreets of the ſame kind, till you arrive at the houſe of a general officer, known by the centinel at the door; but you ſee neither porter, nor footman, nor any thing of that train of attendants ſo viſible at Vienna.
Rieſbec, tells us, that the inns throughout Berlin, are little better than the bignios in London; that they keep liſts of ladies in their neighbourhood, who are ſeated ac⯑cording to their prices; and that a ſervant is always wait⯑ing at hand to fetch them. The landlords are very im⯑poſing, and every thing is exceedingly dear; ſix [...]r ſeven livres is paid for a bottle of bad Burgundy, and a certain meaſure of wood, that coſts but a trifle at Paris, is ſold for a guinea and a half; though Brandenburg is full of woods. But Marſhall ſays, he had as good private lodg⯑ings [184] for fifteen ſhillings a week, as he could have in Lon⯑don for thirty-five.
The perſon who ſhewed the palace, when Dr. Moore was at Potsdam, in the late King's reign; aſked him, if he had any deſire to ſee the King's wardrobe. This conſiſted, of two blue coats, faced with red, the lining of one, a lit⯑tle torn; two yellow waiſtcoats, a good deal ſoiled with Spaniſh ſnuff; three pair of yellow breeches, and a ſuit of velvet, embroidered with gold for grand occaſions. The velvet ſuit he had had ten years, and was in good condi⯑tion.
As I have given a drawing, of Frederick II. in his ſtudy with Voltaire, and the likeneſs of both is wonderfully pre⯑ſerved, it may not be amiſs to deſcribe his dreſs, which is ſeldom obſerved. It conſiſted of a blue coat lined and faced with red, and yellow waiſtcoat and breeches. He always wore boots with huſſar tops, which fell in wrinkles about his ancles, and were oftener brown than black.
His hat would be thought extraordinary large in Eng⯑and, though it is of the ſize commonly worn by the Ruſ⯑ſian officers of cavalry. He generally wore one of the [186] large ſide corners on his forehead and eyes, and the front cock at one ſide. His hair was alway [...] cued behind, and dreſſed on each ſide with a ſingle curl, and ſeldom was it well dreſſed. He had conſtantly in his hand a very large gold ſnuff-box, ornamented with diamonds, and took an immoderate quantity of Spaniſh ſnuff, which was ſcattered about his waiſtcoat and breeches; and theſe were often marked with the paws of two or three Italian grey-hounds, which he frequently careſſed.
In the old chamber, where the late King died, at the lower part of the window, which looks into the garden, four panes have been removed, and a piece of glaſs, equal in ſize with the four, ſupplies its place. The King's ex⯑treme delight through life, had been to ſee his troops ex⯑erciſe, and he retained this paſſion till his laſt breath. When he was confined to his room, by his laſt illneſs, he uſed to ſit and view them through the window, which had been thus formed for the purpoſe. Becoming gradually weaker by his increaſing diſorder, he could not ſit, but was obliged to lie on a couch the whole day. When at any time, he was uncommonly languid, his head was raiſed to the window, and a ſight of the men under arms, was per⯑ceived to operate like a cordial, and recover his ſpirits. By frequent repetition, however, even this loſt its effect; his eyes became dim; when his head was raiſed, he could no longer perceive the ſoldiers, and he expired. This was feeling the ruling paſſion as ſtrong in death, as any man ever felt it!
[187]In the garden are many rich ſtatues of a great ſize, par⯑ticularly a Neptune and Amphitrite, erected on a ſea-car, in a large baſon, oppoſite the eaſt front of the palace. The ſtables are adjoining, and are well furniſhed with good Engliſh hunters. Near the town is a number of vine⯑yards.
Towns, generally, are formed by degrees, as the inha⯑bitants increaſe in number; and houſes are built larger, and more commodious, as they increaſe in wealth. But here the matter is reverſed. The houſes are built firſt, and beautifully ſo, to entice the people; but notwithſtand⯑ing this, few towns are worſe inhabited, though the houſes are let to merchants and tradeſmen, at low rents. The houſes here are chiefly uniform, all new, and of one height; ſeveral ſtreets have been built at once, at the King's ex⯑pence. The ſtreets are regular and well paved, and here are ſome magnificent public buildings. Thus externally Potſdam wears a reſpectable appearance, but it is internally, like the houſes at Berlin. The finiſhing of the buildings, furniture and conveniencies are poor indeed!
At Potſdam are quartered the King's guards, who are about 2000 men, of great ſtature and comlineſs, well cloathed, and diſtinguiſhed by ſilver-laced hats, and black cockades.
About an Engliſh mile from Potſdam, is the palace of Sans-Souci, which preſents the eye with a remarkable fine [188] proſpect. It is built on the top of a deſolate mountain, with great taſte both within and without. The offices are at a conſiderable diſtance, and are joined to the body of the palace (now completely finiſhed,) by a double colo⯑nade, which has a grand effect. The front of the palace ſeems rather crowded, by a great number of ſtatues, de⯑ſigned to ornament it, theſe are chiefly in groups, repre⯑ſenting ſome ſtory from Ovid. This mountain is cut into ſix terraces, to each of which we aſcend by twelve ſteps, and againſt the walls on each terrace, are planted the beſt vines, and are kept under glaſs caſes. On the upper part of the mountain, which affords an agreeable view of the town and its vicinage, ſtands the palace, it is ſmall and only one ſtory high, yet, on account of its regularity, elegance, and ornaments, conſiſting of the greateſt maſter-pieces in ſculpture, painting, and other arts, is admirable. The ſta⯑tues from the cabinet of antiquites, formerly in the poſſeſ⯑ſion of Cardinal Polignac, are depoſited here. In the centre of this palace, is a round hall, lined with marble, whoſe magnificent columns, excellent paintings, and beautiful marble-floor, diſpoſed in the form of flowers, in the Floren⯑tine manner, ſtrikes the eye very agreeably. On the top is a cupola that gives it light, terminated by a large crown, ſupported by the three graces. One of the apartments in the palace is wainſcoted with cedar, and ornamented with flowers of gold, and here is a ſmall library. Behind the palace is a ſemicircular paſſage, adorned on each ſide with columns, and three ſides of the whole is ſurrounded with fine gardens, but which have nothing extraordinary, except [189] ſome fine pieces of ſtatuary, done by Nancie of Paris, par⯑ticularly Venus drawing a net, and Diana with game; the pedeſtals of which are in relievo. The garden is about half an Engliſh mile in length, terminated by an Egyptian pyramid. Here is very little turf and no gravel, the ſandy walks robbing the place of half its beauty. What it wants in beauty, however, is made up in reſpect, for no one in the late King's life, was ſuffered to walk in it with a ſword on, on any pretence; nor did the King himſelf ever wear one in that retreat.
Potſdam was the favourite reſidence of the late king, where he avoided the empty ceremonies of a court, and where he ſat down to table with twelve perſons, inviting even his enſigns in rotation. His bed, at Sans-Souci, was in a ſmall niche, conſiſting only of two matraſſes, under the cover of a down quilt, without the leaſt common orna⯑ment, or mark of grandeur.
Dantzic is a famous commercial city and ſortreſs, ſitua⯑ted on the Viſtula, about five miles from the Baltic. It is a ſea port town, and has two ſmall rivers running through it. It is a large, populous, and beautiful city, one of the Hanſe-towns, and built according to the ancient manner of thoſe towns: but moſt of the ſtreets are nar⯑row, owing to the galleries of the houſes, by which we enter them, projecting ten or twelve feet into the ſtreets. To theſe galleries there is an aſcent by a footſtep; they [190] ſtand even with the houſes, and under moſt of them are good vaults, or cellars.
The city has a beautiful harbour, carries on a conſide⯑rable trade, eſpecially in corn. The ſhips belonging to this port are very numerous, and the privileges of the city are of great importance. As the third great city, it ſends repre⯑ſentatives to the Pruſſian ſenate, or council of ſtate, who have likewiſe a ſeat in the general diet of Poland, and vote at the election of a king of Poland. It has alſo the privilege of coining money, gathering amber, &c. This place was ſubject to the crown of Poland, as was alſo the city of Thorn; but the late king of Pruſſia, by no other right than what a powerful army confers on every tyrant, ſeized upon them, with the countries on the Viſtula, the Nieſter, and other territories contiguous to his own dominions.
The chief burghers, of which there are one hundred, are ſtiled nobles, and the city was anciently the principal of the Hanſe-towns, being one of the firſt that entered into, that aſſociation. It was a conſiderable place in 997. It has its own garriſon, and the fortifications make a good appearance; eſpecially towards the South and Weſt, which parts are ſurrounded with mountains and eminences; ſome of theſe hills being higher than the city towers.
According to the bills of mortality, in 1752, 1846 perſons died here. In the ſame year, 1288 Poliſh [191] veſſels, ſmall and great, from the Viſtula, and 1014 ſhips from the ſea arrived at this port, and 58,060 laſts of corn were brought here for exportation. This will give ſome idea of its population and commerce.
In this city are twelve Lutheran churches, two Calviniſ⯑tic churches, and one Papiſt church. The inhabitants are chiefly Proteſtants, yet the city ſtanding in the papiſt dio⯑ceſe of Cujaira, is ſubject to pay pecuniary impoſitions, upon every frivolous pretence. One of the churches is a Lutheran cathedral, and the firſt preacher is called ſenior Miniſterii; the reſt are equal in dignity, but two of them muſt be doctors in divinity. Here is alſo a Lutheran academy, with ſeven profeſſors, and one teacher of the Poliſh language; though this language is but little uſed, the inhabitants chiefly ſpeaking German. There is an open library, ſome publick buildings, and a remarkable water-mill on the river Radaune, with eighteen wheels, which is ſaid to bring in the proprietors ten ſhillings every hour. Without the walls of the city are a number of ſmall towns belonging to it, and a territory between twelve and fifteen miles round. One of theſe towns, is that of Oliva, ſo celebrated for the peace concluded in it. Here is an abbey and a convent. The peace I allude to, was between the Emperor, and the kings of Poland and Swe⯑den. Charles [...]ſ [...]vus, king of Sweden, dying during the ratification, all the great conqueſts made by him, were reſtored to the crown of Poland: the particulars of this peace, which happened in the year 1617, are engraved on [192] a black marble monument. The Abbot's revenues amoun⯑ted to £5,000 a year, but the king of Pruſſia beſieged the whole, and allotted him a penſion, for life of 550l. and about a fourth of that ſum to keep his fine garden in order. Wraxhall tells us, on inconteſtible authority, that the King confiſcated the eſtates of a great number, of Poliſh nobles, and reduced their families from a revenue of 100,000 ducats, each ducat, nine ſhillings and three pence, Engliſh, to abſolute indigence. The city was crouded with Poliſh nobility, who on that ſeiſure of territory, abandoned their torn and bleeding country, to take refuge in it; but the king of Pruſſia, having threatened to ſeize all their eſtates, unleſs they returned; they were under the ne⯑ceſſity of complying.
In the great church at Dantzic, is a vaſt pillar hollow⯑ed, which they ſay was anciently uſed to immure eccle⯑ſiaſtics, guilty of heinous crimes. They let perſons down into it, by a rope, and it is forty feet deep; the ſquare dimenſions within, about ſeven feet.
Dantzic, though much ſuperior to Koningſberg, is nei⯑ther elegant, nor handſome, it very much reſembles Hamburgh, both in the loftineſs of the houſes, the man⯑ner of building them, and the narrowneſs of the ſtreets; they are however much cleaner than any other in this part of the world, but its neatneſs is not carried to that length it is in Holland. The principal ſtreets are plant⯑ed on each ſide in the Dutch way with wild cheſnuts, about [193] thirty feet high; the city is not large, not exceeding three miles in circuit, but fortified with a wall and double ditch. Two thouſand ſoldiers would be ſcarce ſufficient to garriſon this place, but they have not 700 men, and thoſe neither in diſcipline, arms, or ammunition, equal to the ſame number of any regular, European forces.
Dantzic, ſays Marſhall, has ſtrength to reſiſt no one but the Poles. They have an arſenal full of uſeful arms, and they talk of poſſeſſing two or three hundred pieces of cannon, but a great train of artillery may be as inſignificant, as theſe at Dantzic are, and be conſidered as a magazine of match-locks.
The commerce of this place, is the only ſubject worth attention, poſſeſſing as they ſay, ſixteen parts out of twen⯑ty of all the trade of Poland, owing to the river Viſ⯑tula, and all its branches, which ſpread through a vaſt extent of that kingdom, and are navigable almoſt where ever they go. They export, wheat ſome years, to the amount, ſays Marſhall, of five, ſix, or 700,000 pounds; and once, the amount roſe to 1,240,000l. but ſince the troubles of Poland, the trade has much declined. All the corn comes in ſloops, and flat-bottomed barges, car⯑rying from thirty, to ſixty tons and more, and wholly on account of the landlords, who are all nobles, in virtue of their poſſeſſing lands. It is raiſed on their eſtates, by their peaſants. The barges are their own, and the wa⯑termen are their own vaſſals. It is ſold to merchants at Dantzic, who lodge it in granaries built for the purpoſe, [194] ſeven, or eight ſtories high. Their boats carry back to their owners, all the commodities and manufactures they have occaſion for. Iron from Sweden, Eaſt-India goods ſupplied by the Dutch, brandy, limes, and Weſt-India commodities, by the French. The trade of England with Dantzic, is very inconſiderable, owing to our not tak⯑ing off any part of her commodities.
Hanway ſays, the inhabitants of Dantzic are much more agreeable than the place itſelf. The women are much like the Engliſh in their ſtature, countenance and air, they have the reputation of being handſome, and indeed are ſo; the bad ones make a market of their beauty, in the worſt manner, in the neighbouring empires, where they are remarkably eminent in a profeſſion, which is apt to convert beauty into deformity, and health into diſeaſe. Women of diſtinction, affect the manner of the Poles, ſo that the moſt reſpectful way of ſaluting a lady, is to kiſs her hand, unleſs you chuſe to ſtoop, as do the Poles, to the hem of her petticoat.
There is an Engliſh factory here. Within the double works, which defend the town, is a ſpacious walk, and a road for coaches. In the outer part is a hillock, under which are depoſited the bodies of near 5000 Ruſſians, who, in one morning, fell by an obſtinate attack, com⯑manded by Count Munich. The Dantzickers, in 1734, having eſpouſed the cauſe of Staniſlaus, king of Poland, in his conteſt with Auguſtus, elector of Saxony, procu [...]ed [195] the aſſiſtance of 10,000 Troops. The Ruſſians, under the command of Count Munich, made a deſperate and inju⯑dicious attack upon the Dantzickers, and were cut to pieces.
The ancient city of Magdeburg, is ſituated in 52 deg▪ odd min. n. lat. and 70 miles weſt of Berlin; it is the capital of the duchy of that name, the ſeat of the provincial regen⯑cy, the conſiſtory, the war and demeſne office, and one of the moſt principal trading towns in all Germany; it lies on the river Elbe, is ſtrongly fortified, and among other works has a citadel in the iſland of the river.
Magdeburg is well built, particularly the broad ſtreet, which makes a grand appearance, though the principal beauty of the town, conſiſts in its cathedral-ſquare orna⯑mented with large elegant houſes, and its area well paved. Among the moſt remarkable edifices here, are the King's palace, which was anciently the reſidence of the biſhops, and is now converted into public offices. The Lu⯑theran cathedral here, is a ſuperb ſtructure in the antique taſte; it was finiſhed in the year 1323, is two hundred and eight ells long, the ſame in height, and fifty-five ells broad; it is wholly built of free-ſtone, and contains many curioſities ſuch as a ſtone, baſſo-relievo of the wiſe and fool⯑iſh virgins, the former ſmiling, and the latter diſconſolate; a number of relics not much regarded; an altar, with a ta⯑ble of jaſper, eighteen feet long, two thick, and eight broad, valued at two tons of gold; a porphyry font, a large [196] ſtone ſaid to be one of the water-pots, in which our Sa⯑viour, turned water into wine; an old wooden ſlipper of the Virgin Mary's; a piece of wood, on which the cock ſtood, that crowed on Peter's denying our Saviour; the baſon Pilate waſhed his hands in, and many others.
Magdeburg has, from time immemorial, enjoyed the ſtaple: in this town is alſo a variety of manufactures, woollen cloths, ſtuffs, cottons, linens, ſtockings, hats, beautiful leather-gloves, tobacco, ſnuff, &c. being very advantageous to trade, from its communication with Hamburgh by the Elbe, and lying on the road, between upper and lower Germany. It is the ſtrongeſt place, be⯑longing to the King of Pruſſia, and where his principal magazines and founderies are eſtabliſhed. In time of war it is the repoſitory of whatever he finds neceſſary to place out of the reach of ſudden attack. The country between Magdeburg, and Brandenburg, within two leagues of the former, is well cultivated and fertile, but at a greater diſtance, it is as naked and ſandy as the deſarts of Arabia.
Places where any extraordinary event has happened, even though they ſhould have nothing elſe to diſtinguiſh them, intereſt a philoſophical traveller, more, than the moſt flouriſhing country or fineſt town, which has never been the ſcene of any thing memorable.
In this city Luther records his education, and they ſtill ſhew the remains of his chamber, among the ruins of the [197] cloiſter of the Auguſtine-friars, with his bedſtead and ta⯑ble, and on the door, are certain words in high Dutch, which a modern writer has thus rendered into Engliſh rhyme.
The ancient city was of a very large circumference, but having been deſtroyed by Count Tilly, the Imperial general, after a brave defence, in the year 1631, it is now ſcarce half rebuilt. Of 40,000 inhabitants, which this town then contained, Tilly cauſed every one to be maſ⯑ſacred, on account of their adhering to the Lutheran doctrine; to the amount of 20,000 citizens, four hun⯑dred only excepted, who ſaved themſelves, by ſwimming acroſs the river, nor did he leave a church or houſe ſtand⯑ing, except the cathedral, and ſome few fiſhermen's cot⯑tages. In this act of general maſſacre, ſuch acts of wan⯑ton cruelty were exhibited, as diſgrace human nature.
The city of Breſlaw, being the capital, of the duchy of Sileſia, I ſhall reſerve, till I ſpeak of that part of the Pruſſian dominions.
CHAP. III. Of the People, Amuſement, Religion, &c.
[198]WHEN the late king came to the crown, his own ter⯑ritories contained at leaſt 2,200,000 inhabitants; Brandenburg had 600,000, Pruſſia, 60,000 Pomerania, 300,000, Magdeburg and Halberſtadt, 300,000, and his Weſtphalian dominions at leaſt, 400,000. His in⯑come conſiſted of at leaſt, 12,000,000 of [...]lorins.
As the Pruſſian population does not bear any propor⯑tion to the ſize of the country, and as that is not yet all cultivated, the number of people is ſuſceptible of a great increaſe. The King's own revenue now is about 30 mil⯑lions of florins, that is about 370,833l. Engliſh. His civil liſt is incredibly ſmall, and his firſt miniſters appointments are only, 15,000 florins.
Rieſbec ſays, he has obſerved no where, throughout the whole Pruſſian dominions, ſo much poverty as in the two cities of Berlin and Potſdam. The high price of the ne⯑ceſſaries of life in theſe places, the great number of idle people, the ſmall pay of many civil and military ſervants, the pinching way in which many of the ſmaller nobility live, who muſt have their ſervants, and the great luxury of dreſs, may be the cauſes of it. The equal diſtribu⯑tion of the coin among many people, makes the ſum not ſo ſtriking, as it is in other places, in which a nobleman [199] ruins the property of a hundred of his poor countrymen by his diſſipation, There are no perſons in the Pruſſian do⯑minions, ſome of the large nobles in Sileſia only except⯑ed, who poſſeſs above 30,000 guilders income, in landed eſtates. Indeed we cannot find more than three houſes, which have 20,000 florins, but ſtill the inhabitants are as remote from extreme poverty, as from exceſſive riches, and there are as few beggars here, as in any other country in Europe.
Since the year 1719, it is computed that 24,000 colo⯑niſts have ſettled here, emigrants from Germany, France, and Switzerland, and theſe Coloniſts, in Little Lithuania, have erected, four hundred villages, eleven towns, eighty-ſix ſeats, and fifty new churches.
The Pruſſian nobility are moſtly deſcended from the an⯑cient Germans, and moſt of the peaſants are vaſſals either to the king, or the nobles.
The cuſtoms and manners of the people are ſo ſimilar to thoſe of the Germans in general, that as we ſhall have oc⯑caſion to ſpeak of them hereafter, it will be needleſs to enter on them here at large. I will only mention a few particulars.
On entering the Pruſſian garriſon towns, you are ſtop⯑ped at the gate; the officer of the guard aſks your name, whence you came, and where you are going, and takes it down in writing. When the title of Duke, is given in as [200] the name, the guard is turned out under arms, not ſo for my Lord, being a title treated with very little ceremony either in France or Germany, and often aſſumed by thoſe who have no right to it, and given to every Engliſhman, of a decent appearance. But Duke, in Germany, implies a ſovereign, and is more reſpectable than Prince.
The French manners and turn of thinking, prevail ve⯑ry little among the Pruſſian officers, but the ladies of the court of Berlin, have greatly the air of the French. Though the late king could not endure the company of a woman, the ladies here, are by no means neglected by the men in general. Many of the married women parti⯑cularly, have a crowd of admirers who attend them upon all occaſions, are invited with them to all enter⯑tainments, ſit next them at table, and whom the maſter or miſtreſs of the houſe, takes care to place toge⯑ther, at the ſame card-table. When a lady is not pro⯑vided with an attendant of this kind, her huſband, as well as herſelf, is generally a little out of countenance, and both ſeem rather in an awkward ſituation.
In this country, when both parties are willing, and there are no children, a divorce may be obtained with ve⯑ry little trouble or expence, and we are frequently in com⯑pany, where a lady, her preſent and former huſband are at table, and all parties behave in the moſt polite and friendly manner to each other.
Dr. Moore tells a pleaſant, ſtory of a gentleman, who [201] having lived in a ſtate of domeſtic jarring with his wife, got her perſwaded to concur with him, in applying for a divorce. It was ſoon obtained. He married again, a woman with whom he was violently in love; and ex⯑pected, as uſual, endleſs happineſs. After marriage this paſſion cooled rather ſooner than common, and within a few months he became the profeſſed admirer of his firſt wife. He now ſaw a thouſand charms in her perſon and converſation, which had entirely eſcaped his notice, whilſt the bonds of wedlock ſubſiſted. He alſo diſcerned that certain peculiarities in her manner, which he formerly thought exceedingly aukward, were in reality graceful. He expreſſed his remorſe for his former blindneſs, in the moſt pathetic terms; the lady was ſoftened and at laſt gave the moſt perfect marks of forgiveneſs, and it was univerſally thought, that he thus contrived to live in adultery, with the very woman, to whom he had been lawfully married.
Here jealouſy is held in equal contempt, and deteſta⯑tion, and ſcandal is very little known. People ſeem ſo fully occupied with their own private affairs, that they ſeldom trouble their heads about the buſineſs of their neighbours. If, in the courſe of converſation, an inti⯑macy of a particular kind is hinted at, between people of different ſexes, it is mentioned accidently as a fact of no importance, and without the ſmalleſt blame, or ill-natured reflections on either of the parties. One reaſon of this may be, that there is ſcarce ſuch a thing as an old maid, throughout all Ruſſia.
[202]Some of the amuſements of Berlin, I have men⯑tioned, but none delighted Reiſbec more, than the park⯑walks on the ſouth ſide of the Sprey, I have never yet, ſays he, ſeen a finer public walk: the varied beauties of the woods, alleys, groves, and wilderneſs, beggar all deſcription. It is above three miles round and has water ſufficient to give more life than there is in the walks of much larger cities.
In this park, on a Sunday, you ſee Berlin in all its glory. It is to the people of this place, what St. James park is to London, and the Thuilleries to Paris, only the mixture of the company is much more ſtriking, as you find all the populace, and all the great world here. You ride or walk through, without any moleſtation. In ſome parts of the park, you ſee rows of ladies magnificently dreſſed, ſitting together, and have the freedom of ſtaring them full in the face, and comparing them to one another: you alſo meet with moſt of the literati of the place, at ſtated times, and there are refreſhments of every kind provided.
The opera is open only in winter, and it is reckoned one of the beſt in Europe, but there is no theatre, except an indifferent German one. The manager ſeems to have ſome very ſingular opinions. He places the ſtrength of his company in the number of his actors, and appears to diſtribute the parts among them by lot. Among fifty performers there is ſcarce a tolerable one, and his wardrobe [203] is of a piece with the reſt. Abſurdity upon abſurdity; the theatre is ſo ſmall that the ſpectators are obliged to take care that the clouds above them do not entangle with their hair; trees are ſcarce big enough for walking ſticks, and ſo poverty-ſtruck are the players, that they are ſcarce able to move their hands or arms, the ſalaries paid them not being more than from 6 or 8 guilders a week; leſs pay than our ſtrolling companies, are not calculated to give them ſtrength. Their forte conſequently conſiſts in fainting away, which is only excelled by themſelves in their dying. Dying is the principal excellence of a German actor, and when he knows how to give life to his death, by beginning the convulſions in his feet, he is ſure of the applauſe of a German pit.
Though the inhabitants of Berlin, including the Ger⯑man are about 142,000 perſons, it is not able to keep up a good company of players. This is entirely owing to want of ſpirit in the manager, who ſuffers half his company to ſtarve, and plays in a building, which, in any other city, would be looked on as a barn.
The diſtinction between the Pruſſian and the Auſtrian character, is not more manifeſt than in their theatres. Two companies of comedians can ſcarce find exiſtence through⯑out all the fine cities of Pruſſia; whereas in Auſtria, there is a theatre in every ſmall town. This difference is not owing to difference of fortunes, for there is much more money in Pruſſia then in Auſtria, though no ſingle houſe [204] in the former has an income of 50,100, or even 200,000 guilders. There is an appearance of care amid the mid⯑dle claſſes of the inhabitants of the Pruſſian towns, which is not ſeen through Auſtria, The only difference conſiſts in the greater induſtry of the Pruſſians and the frugality inſeparable from it. The knowledge and manners found among the inhabitants of the Pruſſian provinces put them in poſſeſſion of better pleaſures, then are to be met with in the theatre, the dancing-booth and the cellar. In the ſmalleſt Pruſſian villages, more happineſs is met with than in many large ſtates in Auſtria, and there is much more good done by private perſons in the former, than in any of the latter.
With regard to the ſciences and literature of all kinds, Berlin is, doubtleſs, one of the firſt cities in the world; it is obliged to the late king, for its pre-eminence, who eſtabliſhed a freedom of thinking, not to be met with in any other country, out of England. This king had an academy of men of learning, and there is no ſtate where the public miniſters, and effective counſellors, are ſuch choſen men, that there is hardly one but would be a won⯑derful writer in his own line: there is ſcarce a ſingle cha⯑racter of eminence but who is well acquainted with the beſt French, Engliſh, and Italian writers. An advantage which neither the Engliſh, French, or Italians can diſpute with them.
[205]There is a univerſity at Koningſberg under good regu⯑lations, and in a flouriſhing ſtate; and ſome provincial ſchools.
The religion of this country, is the Lutheran; but as great numbers of the coloniſts, are Calviniſts, they have alſo their churches, not only in the cities and towns, but in many of the villages. There are but two or three Popiſh churches throughout Pruſſia. Indeed the free exerciſe of every religion, is allowed all over the Pruſſian dominions. Here are no biſhopricks, but all eccleſiaſtical matters are referred to the conſiſtories at Koningſberg and Saalfield, which are ſomething like the preſbyteries in the kirk of Scotland. The churches in every haupt-amt, or diſtrict, is ſubject to an arch-preſbyter or inſpector.
CHAP. IV. Of their Trade, Manufactures, and Government.
THE manufactures in Pruſſia are daily improving and increaſing, particularly the glaſs and iron-works; pa⯑per, [206] powder, copper and braſs mills; manufactures of cloth, camlet, linen, ſilk, ſtockings &c. Pruſſia, is very conveniently ſituated for trade; a college for commerce and navigation has been erected, which has the cogni⯑zance of all caſes in, and ſettles all diſputes relative to, trade and commerce.
The commodities of Pruſſia, and Great Lithuania, ſold to foreign merchants, and annually exported, are all kinds of grain, pine-trees for maſts, deal boards and other timber, tar, wood-aſhes, pot-aſh, elk-ſkins, leather, firs, amber, 12,500 ſtone of wax, honey, graſs, manna, linſeed⯑oil, flax, hemp, linſeed, and hemp-ſeed, 4000 ſacks of the former, 700 of the latter; yarn, hogs briſtles, ſtags horns, elks, horſes, oatmeal, mead, dried fiſh, ſturgeon, caviar, lampreys, butter, and about 3400 ſtone of tal⯑low.
The number of foreign ſhips, that reſort here for lad⯑ing, annually, are about 550, which import wine, ſalt, ſpice, linen, cloth and other woollen, ſtuffs, herrings, tin, copper, lead, tobacco, ſugar, rice, coffee and other gro⯑cery, and Koningſberg is the great market.
The Sileſia linens are famous all over the world, and the Sileſia foreſts afford a great deal of wood for ſhip⯑building. The Ville de Paris, taken from the French on the celebrated 12th of Auguſt, was wholly built of Sileſia wood.
[207]So many thouſand of French manufacturers having found protection in this country, gold and ſilver lace, and wrought ſilks are hardly to be bought in any place ſo cheap. They talk of prohibiting thoſe of France. The environs of Berlin produce annually 400lb weight of raw ſilk. The King has indeed taken the manufactory into his own hands, with a view of increaſing it.
The late king having kept his eye on the importation of luxuries into his dominions, making it a rule al⯑ways to lay an exciſe on rich luxuries, in proportion to their increaſe, has always kept down the foreign trade, but on the other hand it increaſed the induſtry of his ſub⯑jects, a demonſtrative proof of this is the aſtoniſhing in⯑creaſe of towns and people. No country in Europe of the ſame ſize, has doubled its population, as Pruſſia has done, within the ſpace of 50 years.
Before I ſpeak of their government, I will preſent my readers with a ſhort abſtract of their hiſtory. They are called Poruſſi or Pruſſians, being cloſe neighbours of the Ruſſians. Po ſignifies neighbouring. We hear of the Pruſſians in the tenth century, but the Teutonic knights, who made religion a cloak for their ambitious views, and committed the moſt inhuman barbarities, under pretence of propagating the goſpel of peace, extirpated the native Pruſſians in 1309, and planted the Germans, their coun⯑trymen, in their ſtead. In 1454, one half of Pruſſia re⯑volted from the the Teutonic order, and declared for Caſ⯑ſimir [208] III. king of Poland. This occaſioned freſh effu⯑ſions of blood, till in 1466, it was ſettled that one part of Pruſſia, ſhould continue under the King's protection, and that the Teutonic knights ſhould retain the other; and after freſh commotions, it was agreed in 1525, that the margrave, grand-maſter of the Teutonic order, ſhould be duke, or ſovereign of the eaſtern part of Ruſſia, as a fief of Poland. This new duke introduced the re⯑formed religion in 1544.
Ducal Pruſſia, now the kingdom, was added to the houſe of Brandenburg, by the elector Joachim, it having been cloſely connected long before and the elector taking part with the Poles, againſt the Swedes, was acknowledged by Poland in 1657, as an independent duke. Frederick, his ſon in 1701, raiſed the duchy to a kingdom, and crowned himſelf with his own hands. Frederick II. his grandſon, the late king, annexed to his dominions the greateſt part of Sileſia, and Eaſt Friezland, and all Po⯑liſh Pruſſia, by the late partition.
The royal arms are a diſplayed eagle, and the King's titles are King of Pruſſia, Margrave of Brandenburg, Duke of Sileſia, Arch-chamberlain, and Prince, Elector of the holy Roman Empire, ſovereign Prince of Orange, Neufchatel, &c. &c.
There are here two orders, that of the Black Eagle, in⯑ſtituted by the firſt king, a broad orange-coloured rib⯑bon [209] and a ſilver ſtar; and the order of Merit, inſtituted by the late king, viz: a golden ſtar, enamelled with blue, worn appendant to a black ribbon, edged with ſilver.
The five members of the royal court of regency, which ſuperintends the whole kingdom, whether political, civil, or eccleſiaſtical, are all privy-counſellors, or mi⯑niſters of ſtate and war, and theſe five have two ſecreta⯑ries. There are, beſides, two chambers of war and de⯑meſnes, one of Koningſberg, the other of Gumbinnen, which have the direction of the revenue, &c.
The late king eſtabliſhed a reputation on the ſureſt foundation, by that bold and generous ſtroke in politics, in delivering his country from the jaws of lawyers, who before his time, at leaſt in Brandenburg, ſported with the wretched. In Pruſſia the deciſion of cauſes, cannot be protracted. Suits in Brandenburg are now brought to a ſpeedy iſſue at an eaſy expence.
Excluſive of the crown-lands, mines, manufactures, and other royal revenues, the finance ſyſtem reſts on the taxes and cuſtoms, which are forty per cent. The land-tax, is about nine ſhillings in the pound. Theſe taxes are cer⯑tainly high, but ſuch is the regularity of government, and ſo little oppreſſion is met with from revenue-officers, that the people are, nevertheleſs, happy, for they are very induſtrious, and induſtry will always accumulate wealth.
[210]Though the King's revenues do not exceed a million and a half ſterling, apparently a ſmall ſum in England, yet, conſidering the difference in the value of money, and the uncommon exertions of oeconomy unequalled in any other court, it is as good as five millions with us. The late king, by a ballance of trade in his favour, annually laid by 100,000l. as much as the new buildings, the payment of his troops and the improvements in his country, coſt.
The incomes of the Pruſſian princes are by no means ſcanty. Every prince has 50,000 rubles (each ruble four ſhillings and ſixpence) a year, ſettled on him as ſoon as of age, and the King's brother, and hereditary prince have eſtates and incomes, to the amount of 350,000 livres a year, each livre ten pence-halfpenny Engliſh. At Berlin, though money is more ſcarce than at London, or Paris, a ſtranger will find very little difference in the com⯑mon expence of living.
The ſpirit of the government is not favourable to great and independant lords, for indeed all landlords are prevented from oppreſſing their peaſants. As the ſoldiery are drawn from them, care is taken that they ſhall not be deprived of the chief ſource of health and vigour, and there is no pea⯑ſantry in Europe better fed than the Ruſſians.
The Pruſſian ſtate, conſidered as a ſtate, is the richeſt in Europe; and it is abſolutely impoſſible, that it ever [211] ſhould be expoſed to any inconvenience, from the want of money; its ſyſtem of finance being eſtabliſhed on ſuch ſolid foundations, that it any future king, was to think of introducing a change, it would over-turn the whole. The bank-bills of Berlin are bought up with avidity. No one thinks they will ever loſe their credit. The Dutch are very happy when this bank will take their money. The late king and his father, ſolved the three moſt difficult problems of ſtate that exiſt, and hiſtory affords no examples of their having been ſolved ſo quickly, ſo hap⯑pily, and ſo univerſally, as they have been by theſe princes. They made a lazy, ſtupid, and prodigal people, induſtrious, active, and alert; they gave to a country, which had been entirely neglected by nature, a value which many, of the moſt highly favoured countries have not, and they placed a ſmall nation in a ſituation, not only to vanquiſh in a favourable moment, all the combined forces of Europe, but to be able at any time to meaſure ſwords with the ableſt of them, ſingly.
CHAP. V. Of the Army.
[212]PRUSSIA has no navy, but her military forces, eſpe⯑cially in the reign of the late king, have been no leſs formidable for their diſcipline than by their number. And it may be aſſerted with great truth, that for a fine appear⯑ance, military diſcipline and activity, the Pruſſian army has not its equal in the world. The corps of cadets at Berlin, is a nurſery for good officers. The number of troops in the pay of the King of Pruſſia, is generally computed at 120,000, half of which are foreigners. He has a body of eighty ſquadrons of Huſſars, each ſquadron 130 men, fine, comely, youthful, ſtrong, and well-ſhaped figures. The arms of theſe men are a light muſket and ſabre: their cloathing, a coarſe, red cloth, made cloſe to their bodies, and ſtrengthened at the elbows, by leather, in the ſhape of a heart; their breeches are, a well-dreſſed ſheep ſkin; their boots, ſhort and light, but the ſoles of them durable; their caps ſo ſtout, as to ſtand a cut.
Beſides theſe Huſſars, the King has a ſmall body of men called Hunters, reputed the moſt faithful couriers in his pay, and are often promoted for their fidelity, in ardu⯑ous enterpriſes. Theſe with a ſingle ball, are very dex⯑trous [213] markſmen, and are employed to pick out the officers from the men. When theſe hunters are taken, no quarter is granted on either ſide.
The Pruſſian ſoldiers are remarkable for their ſhort cloathing, and their elbows being covered with leather, a ſoldier is never ſeen the leaſt in rags; on the contrary in cleanlineſs of perſon, they all appear like gentlemen.
The Kings guards, and ſome few other regiments, are cloathed yearly; but, in general, the army has new regi⯑mentals only twice in three years. They wear white linen ſpatterdaſhes in ſummer, and black, in winter. In ſum⯑mer their breeches are dimity, and in winter, white wool⯑len: their hair is pig-tailed behind and always powdered, when on duty.
The hats of the foot-ſoldiers and grenadiers caps are ſmall; they carry their cartouch-box higher than other troops, but their arms are heavier then common. They are kept ſo remarkable clean, that a ſoldier can hardly find time to be idle or wicked. They go through their exerciſe twice a day, and when the weather is bad, they are under cover.
None but the natives of Brandenburg, are employed in any other than military duty, but theſe in time of peace may, by rotation, follow their reſpective employs. In ſum⯑mer-time, bodies of cavalry are ſent into the field, which [214] are on the look-out to prevent diſertion and robberies on the roads. Theſe detachments are computed at 100 men each, and a watch-guard of two men is placed at certain diſtances on the roads, near their body.
The pay of a common ſoldier is eight groſch a week. This is fourteen pence Engliſh, and his bread. Of this pay three pence is ſtopped for waſhing, and materials to clean his arms. Upon this calculation 120,000 men coſt but 364,000£. but if we include their bread, cloathing and the pay of officers, it does not much exceed a million ſterling. In diſciplining the men, the corporals, will, let a fellow be ever ſo thick-headed, tell him with patience a thouſand times; but when once he knows his buſineſs, if he fails afterwards, they correct him with a ſtick.
Wonderful as the Pruſſian infantry is, in point of diſ⯑cipline and exactneſs, the cavalry infinitely ſurpaſſes them. The Engliſh even think that the Pruſſian army goes be⯑yond all that can be conceived of it. Immenſe ſums are ſpent upon the cavalry, and horſes are ſent for as far as Tartary. They ride always full gallop, and yet their evo⯑lutions are as exact as any of the infantry. The cavalry are above 80,000 ſtrong, and every year are ſupplied with 5000 freſh horſes. They are accuſtomed to charge in large bodies, and in full ſpeed.
But the cuiraſiers are the flower of the Pruſſian army; theſe are dreſſed in buff coats, and wear very heavy iron [215] breaſt-plates, which cover all the front part of the body, and are proof againſt a muſket-ſhot. The infantry, on every attack, are ordered, to ſhout, from an opinion that it keeps up the ſpirits of the men, and prevents them from reflecting on their danger. For the ſame reaſon, the Pruſſian re⯑giments have a greater proportion of drummers than thoſe in the ſervice of other ſtates.
Of the officers no one in 20 is a foreigner, and they are all men of high birth, and muſt have ſerved as cadets. The ſubalterns have but ſmall pay, but they have the greateſt alacrity, and the fineſt martial appearance.
CHAP. VI. Of the Duchy of Sileſia.
THE duchy of Sileſia is divided between the two crowns, that of Bohemia, and that of Pruſſia; but the greateſt part of it is in the dominions of Pruſſia, taken from the Queen of Hungary, and ceded to the King of Pruſſia, in 1744. This territory conſiſts of 19 prin⯑cipalities, and contains about 650 geographical ſquare miles.
[216]Sileſia terminates to the eaſt on Poland, where the country is level and open. On the ſouth it is ſeparated from Hungary by a chain of mountains, and a wild thicket, in ſome parts a German mile wide, which both Crowns have claimed, but which is ſtill diſputed, and of courſe remains as a barrier. In the ſouth and weſt, Sileſia is bounded by a chain of hills, for height and extent ſome of the moſt remarkable in Europe. In theſe mountains and all over that part of upper Sileſia, lying towards Moravia and Hungary, the winter ſets in earlier and is of longer con⯑tinuance, and much more ſevere than in the levels. In thoſe very months, when at the foot of ſome of theſe mountains every thing is covered with ice and ſnow; the trees at Breſlau in winter are in full verdure. The inhabi⯑tants of the mountains are not only confined to their houſes by the ſnows, though in latitude 50 and 51; but like the Laplanders, and people of Carniola, uſe a kind of ſcates, by which they travel over the ſnows with amazing ſwift⯑neſs. In the principality of Glogau, and beyond the Oder, towards Poland, there are very extenſive lands, but the deficiency of good crops there is amply ſupplied, by the fertility of the other, and larger parts of Sileſia, which excluſive of wheat, rye, barley and oats, yields, maize or barley, wheat, ſpelt, buck-wheat, millet, lin⯑ſeed, peas, and beans. The culinary herbs about Breſlau Brieg, Neyze, Frankenſtein, and Lignitz, are excellent and the neighbourhood of Granberg, and Lower Beuthen affords plenty of fine fruits. Even in the parts con⯑tiguous to Poland, are many ſubſtantial families who live [217] in the moſt deſirable affluence. Perſons of rank purchaſe eſtates there, that yield from 6 to 12 per cent. Flax, hops and madder, are grown every where and the latter forms one of their moſt conſiderable exports. Scharte, a yellow dye, is gathered by cart-loads: they have alſo tobacco-plantations and ſome ſaffron. In many ſeaſons, the wine made here may be drank with pleaſure. In the mountains and upper Sileſia, tar, pitch, and roſin is extracted from the pine, fir and beech, the larch-tree yields turpentine, and from the trunks of the coarſer pines, the inhabitants of the mountains make a lamp-black.
In the mountains are found agate, jaſper and even ſome gems, particularly amethyſts, of uncommon hardneſs, and beauty, and ſome diamonds. Here are great pl [...]nty of blocks of ſtone, formed into grave-ſtones, pillars, &c. and at Neuſalz, in lower Sileſia the King has a manuf [...]c⯑tory of mill-ſtones, one of which, four Rheniſh [...]eet an [...] a half long, will ſell for 27 rix-dollars, or but 61. Engliſh. Here are, alſo, ſome coal pits, ſilver min [...] and one of gold; and copper and lead-mines. Vi [...]riol, [...] found here in many places, and at Maſſel and other places, are a great many iron ſounderies.
As they breed but few horned cattle, they are chi [...]fly ſup⯑plied from Poland, and Hungary; and at the f [...] of Brieg, Breſlau, and Schweidnitz, it is uſual to ſee from [...] fifteen thouſand [...]ead of Poliſh and Hungarian cat [...]e. A great quantity of cheeſe is here made of goats milk, and [218] two good goats are held equal to a cow. They breed ſome ſtout, fine horſe [...], and the ſheep, which are ſhorn twice a year, are very profitable for their wool. They have plenty of game, and ſome wild animals, as lynxes, otter, foxes, &c. which are caught for their ſkins.
In the Oder which traverſes Sileſia from end to end, and is navigable almoſt all the way, are caught ſalmon and ſtur⯑geon, the latter ſometimes ſix or ſeven ells long; ſ [...]ate from 40 to 50lb. each; and other rivers, and the lakes, produce various kinds of fiſh, in great plenty.
In Sileſia, there are 169 cities, and 14 market-towns, and the villages are ſo thick, as to ſtand within a cannon⯑ſhot of each other, and the inhabitants of Pruſſian Sile⯑ſia are ſaid to amount to 1,800,000. Theſe conſiſt chiefly of Germans and Poles, excluſive of the clergy. In Sileſia reſide dukes, princes counts, barons, gentle⯑men, citizens, and peaſants. Its dukes or princes, till 1740, were only five, of whom the biſhop of Breſlau is the firſt, but the late king of Pruſſia, added two more to their number.
The chief religion of this place, is the Roman-Catholic; but, there is a univerſal toleration, and all parties enjoy a perfect lib [...]ty of conſcience. The biſhop of Breſlau, is of the Romiſh faith, and is vi⯑car-general of all the Popiſh cl [...]rgy, within the Ruſ⯑ſian dominions, and this dioceſe, the only one, com⯑prehends [219] ſeven collegiate churches, ſeventy-ſeven arch⯑preſbyteries, ſixteen pri [...]ries, eighty-ſix convents, and 576 pariſhes. All eccleſiaſtical benefices, are in the King's gift.
Of the reformed religion, there are Lutherans, Cal⯑viniſts, Huſſites and Moravians. At Breſlau is a Greek church; beſides which, the Jews, alſo, are permitted their ſynagogues.
The principal manufactures, in Sileſia, are thoſe of thread, twine, linen, flax, and damaſk. Printing of linen, here, in oil and water-colours, is carried to great perfec⯑tion; beſides which, canvas, and buckram of ſeveral kinds are made, and laces, and paper, more than they have occaſion for. Beſides ſtockings and hats, are here alſo manufactured, linſey-woolſey, druggets, fuſtians, pluſh, callimanco, and other ſtuffs; alſo cotton, ging⯑hums, leather, &c. They make a beautiful kind of chryſtal glaſs, and poliſh and cut it, beyond other countries. In Sileſia alſo, are a number of powder, and iron-mills.
The principal exports, are madder, mill-ſtones, thread, yarn linen, wool, woolen-cloths, ſtuffs, and paper. Their impor [...]s are wax, honey, hides, leather, furs, brought [...] Poland Hungary, and Ruſſia; wheat, [...]xen, horſes, and rock-ſalt, with wines from Hungary, Moravia, and A [...]ria, the countries abou [...] the Rhine, and France, &c.
[220]Of Pruſſian Sileſia, Breſlau is the capital. It lies on the Oder, which, on the north ſide, runs cloſe by the walls. Its fortifications, are of no great importance. It has ſeveral large and regular ſquares; the chief ſtreets are alſo broad; it has many ſtately, public edi⯑fices, and contains numbers of very elegant houſes, and other private buildings. Here are a cathedral, twenty-four churches of different perſwaſions, with ſome convents, a biſhop's palace, and a Popiſh univerſity. The city has a governor, a high court of juſtice, a court of exchequer, a war, a domain, and ſeveral tax-offices, a college of phyſicians, and a mint. It is the third city in rank, next to Berlin, and Konings⯑berg, in all the Ruſſian dominions, has two fairs, two yearly markets, and two markets for wool. The biſhop is a Roman Catholic, but the magiſtracy is Lu⯑theran. It is the centre of all the trade in Sileſia, and carries on divers manufactures. Several villages in the neighbourhood belong to the city, ſeveral to the biſhop, and ſeveral to the chapters of the cathedral.
All the country within thirty miles of the city, is rich, either in corn, meadow, or wool; the arable land is well cultivated, and potatoes are planted, for the conſumption of Breſlau, in great quantities. The King of Pruſſia keeps a garriſon of 10,000 men, who are drawn up in the great ſquare every day, and go through their exerciſe.
[221]The manufacture of linen in Sileſia, is very con⯑ſiderable, it employs many thouſands, enriches the whole duchy, and brings in a very conſiderable revenue to the King. Moſt of the linens, which are bleach⯑ed at Harlaem in Holland, and afterwards are ſo well known under the name of Dutch, are made in Sileſia; formerly, immenſe quantities were conſumed in Eng⯑land, but ſince the great ſucceſs which has attended the fabricks of Ireland and Scotland, this impolitic importation has come to nothing.
Landed property here is much diſordered. Now and then, ſays Marſhal, we ſee an old barons eſtate of great extent, around an old caſtle, with all the marks of antiquity and grandeur; but, in general, the land belongs to perſons enriched by trade and manufactures. On theſe eſtates, the lands are let to farm, as in England; and the peaſants, not being vaſſals to te⯑nants, are hired in the manner of under labourers. The common rent is from ſeven to eleven ſhillings an acre. Wheat yields two quarters per acre, barley three, buck-wheat four, and their flax-grounds, yield a profit of four pounds an acre. They lay moſt of the manure they make on their cabbage-grounds, make great uſe of mud from the Oder, and plough their land with oxen.
A DESCRIPTION OF BOHEMIA. From Brown, Keyſ [...]er, Buſchin, Reiſbec, Moore, &c.
[]CHAP. I. Of the Country, Climate, and Productions.
[...]OHEMIA, in German, implies the reſidence of the Lo [...], a p [...]p [...], who with the H [...]lvet [...], inhabited the Hercynian foreſt, [...] were thence expelled, in the reign of Auguſtus. Mo [...]n Bohemia, including part of Mo⯑rav [...]a, is bounded by Saxony and Luſatia or the north, by Pruſſian Sileſia, and Hungary on the eaſt, by Bavaria and Auſtria, tow [...]d the ſouth, and by the Palatinate of Bavaria and Saxony towards the weſt. It is near 300 Engliſh miles, from north to ſouth, and 250 from eaſt to weſt.
[223]Bohemia as a country, has been run down by travel⯑lers, but Moore ſays, though it is by no means, ſo fer⯑tile, or ſo fine a country as Saxony, it has many very beautiful places, and varied with the moſt agreeable, ru⯑ral objects. Reiſbec ſays it is a country favoured of Hea⯑ven, and its climate excellent, ſo that many foreign⯑ers have made Prague their conſtant reſidence. The ſpring is not ſo beautiful even at Rome, as it is here. Spring and ſummer, are as remarkable, as the winter is at Vienna, where you ſeldom ſee a regular ſpring, but the winter and ſummer almoſt join. The climate is not expoſed to any of thoſe ſudden and inclement changes, which are ſo fatal to health in other places. The winter colds are neither too ſharp, nor the ſummer heats too ſtrong. The air is dry, clear, and temperate. The country is high, and forms a large extent, ſurrounded, on all ſides, by very high hills, covered with rich woods. The vale in the middle, is watered by the Elbe, the Mol⯑daw, and the Eyer, of which an idea may be eaſily form⯑ed by looking on the map, that it is protected from the force of the winds; though being an inland country, re⯑mote, from any other, it is colder than many places in the ſame latitude.
The ſeveral hollows in the middle of the vale, contri⯑bute to let out the waters, ſo that there are neither lakes, nor moraſſes, to fill the air with unwholeſome vapours. Some few parts of the country are ſandy, and ſome ſtony, but the ſoil in general, is fat and rich.
[224]Within three miles of Trautenau, on the borders of Sileſia is a very wonderful, natural curioſity. As we ap⯑proach it a great number of high towers offer to the view, ſeveral of which, in many places, are in regular rows, and moſt of them diſperſed in an extraordinary man⯑ner. We walk through them near a mile, as in a kind of labyrinth, encompaſſed with theſe towers on each ſide. Moſt of them, are from ſixty to ſeventy feet high, and ſome from 100 to 150. When viewed obliquely, their ſummits form a kind of waving line, like the back of a hill, which riſes and ſinks again. They are all formed of a hard quarry ſtone, and nature has generally ſhaped them into more or leſs regular ſquares. The general opinion is, that theſe rocks are the ſkeleton of a hill [...] through which the water has made its way, waſhing away the earth, and, in courſe of time, has left the rocky or ſtony part of the hill quite bare.
In this neighbourhood is the famous hill of Bohemia, called Rieſenberge, conſidered by the inhabitants of this flat country, as a mountain; but in fact, though it is 8000 feet in aſcent, and requiring three hours time to climb to the top, yet it is a mole hill, compared with mount St. Gothard in Switzerland, whoſe elevation, above the Mediterranean Sea, is more than 13,000 feet, and yet, by no means, the higheſt mountain of the Alps. On the top of Rieſenberge, is a plain with a chapel on it, viſited by pious people once a year, and from its ſummit, [225] the proſpect into Bohemia and Sileſia, and the great mountains below it, is ſtriking and magnificent.
The confines of Bohemia are diſtinguiſhed, by paint⯑ed brick poſts, ten feet high, bearing the arms of the country; and we no ſooner paſs them, than we meet with a quite different huſbandry, a different people, and a dif⯑ferent language. That part of Bohemia, between Prague and Saxony, is infinitely richer, and more beautiful than that which lies between Prague and Auſtria. Agriculture like the country itſelf, is more varied, the people, live cloſer together, and ſeem to be happier. Hills, woods, plains and vales, form an agreeable contraſt with each other, and the vine, not to be ſeen elſewhere, but in the road from Prague to Dreſden, here covers the ſides of the hills.
Bohemia produces every thing that can contribute to the comfort of life, in aſtoniſhing abundance, wine and ſalt only excepted. But theſe they have brought to them, at a moderate price. There have been many ſucceſsful experiments made to produce wine, but the country is ſcarce able to produce a ſufficiency of this article for its conſumption. Bohemian hops, are carried as far as the Rhine, in great quantities, and they export a great deal of ſtrong beer. The breed of horſes is wonderfully improved here, within theſe few years, and furniſhes a great part of the dragoon-horſes, for the army. Any man may get his mare covered in the Imperial ſtuds, or thoſe of the [226] nobility for a guilder, as theſe ſtuds are furniſhed with Moldavian, Tartarian, and Tranſylvanian ſtone-horſes, ſo that the peaſants every where have excellent horſes.
Bohemian tin is ſuperior to all but the Engliſh, and they carry on a very conſiderable trade in allum, and ſe⯑veral precious ſtones, particularly garnets. The large woods, in which the country abounds, furniſh materials for their wonderful glaſs-manufactories, which bring a great deal of money into the country, and find their way into all parts of Europe.
Muſcovy glaſs, and ſtone-coal, are found here, alſo ſulphur, and vitriolic water. Gold, though not at pre⯑ſent ſought for, has been met with, particularly in their rivers. They have ſilver mines at Kuttenburg and other places, and mines that produce copper, lead, quick-ſilver, and ſalt-petre. Above 100 towns and places, may be named, where mine-works have been eſtabliſhed. All kinds of marble are likewiſe dug in Bohemia. Among the precious ſtones, are ſome diamonds, rubies, chryſoli [...]es, emeralds, ſapphires, &c. &c. It has alſo ſome mineral waters and warm baths at Calſbad and Teiplitz.
The rivers Elbe and Moldau riſe in Bohemia, unite below Prague, run through Saxony, by Hamburgh, and empty into the German ocean; it is navigable at Leut⯑meritz. The Oder riſes in Sileſia, waſhes the ſhore of Poland, Brandenburg and Pomerania, and falls into the [227] Baltic. There are other towns, but theſe are the prin⯑cipal.
There are ten principal highways, leading from Prague, through the whole country; they are made in a direct line, and in many places ſecured by maſonry, the hol⯑low parts b [...]ing filled up, and deep trenches cut on both ſides, to carry [...]f the water. This uſeful labour, coſt ſome millions of florins, though the Sou [...]gers muſt give their labour gratis. Their way of travelling is not different from [...]urs. Coaches are in uſe here, though the roads, except the great ones, above mentioned, are none of the beſt, the lower ponds are deep in winter, and the moun⯑tainous parts, inconvenient for wheel carriages, of courſe they travel by water where they can, and in winter uſe ſkate and ſledges.
In the inns on the road, we ſeldom fail meeting with good proviſions, as [...] capons, pheaſants, partridges, and hares, but the l [...]dging [...] not agreeable to the other entertainment, being general [...] only ſome clean ſtraw, ſpread on the floor, with a boliter or pillow for the head.
As they have a good deal of paſture-ground, they abound in oxen, ſheep, and other cattle, they have alſo moſt other animals, wild and tame, which are found in Europe, and great quantities of deer and game in their foreſts; their rivers ſupply them well with fiſh and fowl.
[228]Moravia is a large province on the eaſt of Bohemia, one half of it ſo mountainous and woody, and ſo rough, as to be almoſt deſolate. In the more open parts are many mo⯑raſſes, bogs, and lakes. The inhabitants, here, can grow ſufficient corn for their conſumption, plenty of hemp and flax, good ſaffron, and what is remarkable, in ſome places, they dig frankincenſe and myrrh out of the earth. They make white and red wines in the tracts lying towards Hun⯑gary, and Auſtria. Here are plenty of otters, bears, and a ſpecies of leopard, as large as dogs, but thicker, and alſo ſome boars. The language of the people, is a dia⯑lect of the Slavonic, little differing from Bohemian, yet the German language is very commonly ſpoken.
The kings of this country were, till the 9th century, powerful, and independent. Poland, Bohemia, and Si⯑leſia, all belonged to Muſcovy. In 908, it became a prey to the Germans, Poles, and Hungarians, and was conquered, and united with Bohemia, in 1086; of courſe we ſhall ſpeak of it generally, as ſpeaking of Bohemia; it contributes, about one third part to the exactions, which Bohemia pays to the Emperor.
CHAP. II. Of the Cities, People, Trade, &c.
[229]BOHEMIA is well peopled, but was formerly much more populous than at preſent, but during the in⯑teſtine, religious wars, and the ſucceeding irruption of the Swedes, many of the towns, villages, and caſtles were laid waſte, ſo that at preſent, excluſive of Moravia, it contains only 105 great and ſmall towns, and not much above 6000 villages. In the laſt century, in the courſe of three or four years, 30,000 fixed families quitted the country, beſides others, and the greateſt part of the no⯑bility. On this account, an attentive traveller finds the towns, boroughs, villages, and highways very deſolate.
Of 32 royal towns, Prague is the chief, and the capital of the kingdom. It lies almoſt in the mid⯑dle; and on both ſides of the river Moldau, which is here ſhallow, and not navigable, but about 800 paces broad. The ſtone bridge over it, is 742 common paces long, and ſo wide that three carriages may paſs a-breaſt. It ſtand on ſixteen piers, ornamented on the ſides with twenty-eight ſtatues of ſaints. It was built by Charles IV. in 1357. The fortifications are not [230] very important, for the [...] may be flanked or rak⯑ed on all ſid [...]s. The houſes are wholly buil [...] of ſtone, and are generally thre [...] ſtories high. It has broader ſtreets, but fewer ſtately palaces, than Vienna, and contains 92 churches, and chapels, and about 40 convents. The inhabitants are eſtimated at 70,000 Chriſtians, and [...] 12 and 13▪000 Jews. It is a very large city divided into three by the river, is above th [...]ee miles long, two broad, but is by no means populous. In ſeveral parts you ſeem as in [...] village. Near the bridge, which ſtands at the upper part of the city, the number of people is very great, but the further you go from this, the more deſtitute is the place. The royal caſtle, which is a very large, irregular building, is built on a hill, that commands an extenſive proſpect. Not far from hence, ſtands the archbiſhop's houſe, (a pretty modern build⯑ing) and the old cathedral, in which are ſome pieces of architecture, which deſerve notice. The Bohemian no⯑bility, who can bear the expence, reſide at Vienna.
Though the city is, in general, ill-built, the ſituation is extremely fine; there is a finer proſpect from the bridge, than in many larger cities. The maſs of houſes riſes like an amphitheatre to a conſiderable height. To the right, the hill riſes above them, as far as the Imperial palace, majeſtically ſituated on the top. On the left it is covered, as far as the middle, with beautiful gardens, and pleaſure houſes, which have [231] a fine effect; and, a moſt extenſive, and magnificent amphitheatre.
From theſe gardens, is a very fine proſpect over the oppoſite part of the city. In the midſt of the broad but dry Moldau, there are two ſmall iſlands, called Great and Little Venice, where the inhabitants make parties of pleaſure.
The Jews form a conſiderable part of the inha⯑bitants of this place, and live in a quarter by them⯑ſelves, called the Jews city. It is pleaſant to walk through the place, and ſee their taylors and ſhoe⯑makers at work in the middle of the ſtreets. They are diſtinguiſhed here from the Chriſtians, by a yel⯑low handkerchief, which they are obliged to wear round their arms. Their induſtry is wonderful. In almoſt every inn, there is a Jew, who does the bu⯑ſineſs of a houſe-ſervant, and does every thing, but will take no money: the only reward they will ac⯑cept, is ſome caſt cloaths; which they make money of.
In whatever degree, this city may have dwindled in wealth and magnificence, the piety of the inhabitants certainly [...]ouriſhes as much as ever. I do not recollect, ſays Moore, ſo many glaring acts of devotion in any place. The corners of the ſtreets, bridges, and pub⯑lic buildings, are all ornamented with crucifixes, ima⯑ges [232] of the Virgin, of all ſizes, and complexions, and ſtatues of ſaints of every country, condition, age, and ſex. People are to be ſeen on their knees, before theſe ſtatues, in every part of this city; but particu⯑larly on the bridge, where there is the greateſt con⯑courſe of paſſengers. Not contented with kneeling, I ſaw ſome proſtrate on their faces, kiſſing the earth. Here is a chapel of Loretto, belonging to the Ca⯑puchins, in imitation of the holy houſe of Lorretto, in Italy; it is ſo rich with jewels and treaſure, as to be eſtimated in value, at ſeveral tons of gold. Here is one pyx, ſet with 6666 diamonds, repreſenting the ſun, which coſt 200,000 guilders, and 10,000 making.
The houſes of the nobility, are many of them built after the Italian model. That of the duke of Fried⯑land, is a ſtately ſtructure, built on the ruins of above 100 houſes, which were pulled down to make room for it, and furniſh materials. The gardens are ex⯑ceedingly beautiful. In the ſtables, which are very large, ſtands a marble pillar, between each horſe, and to every ſtanding, is a rack of ſteel, and a marble manger; and over it, the picture of the horſe that uſed it, as large as life, with his name.
In the houſes of the peaſants, there is a place walled in, to hold the ſtove, or fire-place, to which they aſcend by a few narrow ſtone ſteps, as into a [233] cock loft, in this warm apartment, they ſleep away the cold winter-nights, very comfortably.
The church of the Croſs of, is an elegant piece of architecture, adorned with fine marble pillars, and beautiful paintings. Without the town-houſe, is a clock, made at the end of the 15th century, exhibiting the revolutions of the ſun and moon, the day of the month, the length of the days, nights &c. but great part of the movements are out of order. The horſe-market is a very large, airy place, and is adorned with an equeſtrian ſtatue of King Wenceſlaus in the centre. The cathedral church of St. Vitus, is very rich in plate, altar-furniture, relics, &c. Among other valuable ornaments, is a crucifix of Hungarian virgin-gold, weighing 10,000 ducats. A conſiderable part of St. Wenceſlaus chapel, is covered with jaſper, ame⯑thyſts, and cornelian, ſome as large as a man's fiſt, but irregularly ſet without order.
The proſpect from the royal apartments of the palace, is quite charming, and the hall, where the Emperor entertains the nobility, is well contrived and very ſplendid. Within the palace is a muſeum.
The whole town, in this city, is a ſtate-priſon, and it is ſaid, there was formerly in one of the rooms of this town, a curious machine, made in the ſhape of a woman, which, when any delinquent was brought [234] near it, would embrace him, and with its arms vio⯑lently break his back and ribs; but, no ſuch thing is now to be ſeen. Some ſay it is removed to St. Pe⯑ter's, and that this machine, was particularly appro⯑priated for the private execution of eccleſiaſtical cri⯑minals.
On the Ratſchin is the palace of Count Czernini which in ſize is inferior to Walenſtein-Houſe, which ſtands near it, but in the magnificence of the build⯑ing, and richneſs of the furniture, it has few equals, in any city in Europe. About forty years ago, when Keyſler was there, the grand hall was not finiſhed, though it was 100 years ſince it was firſt began, and workmen were generally employed upon it. The noble gallery of pictures in this palace, is 175 paces long. The count's annual income is 300,000 guilders, (each guilder 2s. 4d. Engliſh,) and he ſpared no ex⯑pence in its embelliſhment.
The credulity and ſuperſtition of the Bohemians is aſtoniſhing; here is a pillar in the church of St. Peter, which they ſay the devil brought from Rome, and broke, by putting it down too hard; and, it is ſo univerſally credited, that it would be dangerous to queſtion its truth. On the altar of St. Longinus, the officer that pierced the ſide of Chriſt, on the croſs, is a large ſtone coffin, in which the ſaint is ſaid to have ſailed on the Moldau. On the bank of this river, which is [235] 1000 paces broad, they have built a chapel, to comme⯑morate the leap, which a ſorcerer took on horſeback, over the river: and they tell you, this horſe had the talent of converſing with its maſter. On the para⯑p [...]t of the wall, where the horſe allighted, which is of brick, they ſhew the print of the horſe's feet. Theſe and ſuch like fables abound throughout Bohemia, and are not only very frequently related, very gravely in common diſcourſe, but to obtain greater credit, are publiſhed in books. Indeed, many of the Auſtrian and Bohemian nobility, will ſwallow improbabilities, with⯑out examination, or making uſe of their reaſon, even beyond any other Roman-catholics.
There is ſcarce a bridge in all the Auſtrian hered [...] ⯑ditary ſtates, that has not a ſtatue of St. Nepomac, who is the patron of bridges. This ſaint ſuffered martyrdom, by being precipitated from the bridge of Prague by order of King Wenceſlaus in 1724, be⯑cauſe he would not reveal what the queen had en⯑truſted him with at confeſſion. The canonization of this new patron was a great expence to the Bohemians. It was in the pontificate of Clement XI.
Prague has been frequently beſieged, and frequently taken; not to mention former times. It was taken by the Saxons in 1631; by the Swedes, in 1648; by the elector of Bavaria, in 1741; by the Auſtrians, in 1742; and by the Ruſſians, in 1744.
[236]An hours-ride from the city, ſtands the white-hill, where the memorable battle on the 8th of November, 1620, was fought, between the Emperor's forces, commanded by the duke of Bavaria, and the troops of the elector pala⯑tine, the head of the proteſtant league; wherein the elec⯑tor's army being diſperſed, the proteſtant intereſt in Ger⯑many ſuffered much, and the elector loſt both the kingdom of Bohemia, and the palatinate. This was the ſon-in-law of James I. of England, from whom the preſent family on the Engliſh throne, is deſcended.
Prague has neither an extenſive commerce, nor any ma⯑nufactory of conſequence. There has long been a pro⯑ject of rendering the Moldau navigable, but the expence has hitherto prevented it. Was it once done, Prague would certainly gain a great deal by it. There is a con⯑vent of Iriſh nuns here; indeed, throughout all Germa⯑ny, we meet with Engliſh and Scotch nuns. The women of this place are handſome, and ſtrangers may make love much eaſier here than at Vienna, becauſe the people here know better how to connect mental enjoyments with ſen⯑ſual pleaſures. Free-Maſonry flouriſhes in Prague ex⯑tremely, and ſome perſons doat on it to enthuſiaſm. The numerous garriſon here lodged, contributes not a little to the livelineſs of the place. There are about 9000 men conſtantly quartered here, the ſix regiments of grenadiers, are the fineſt of infantry, and the officers are excellent company, and entirely free from thoſe prejudices, from which other bodies of men are not totally exempt.
[237]The perſons of the Bohemians, like their neighbours the Germans, are rather of the largeſt; they are all very corpulent, of a hale complexion, and wonderfully ſtrong built. Dubravious, one of their hiſtorians, who was Biſhop of Olmutz, in the 16th century, compares them to Lions, "as the land," ſays he, "according to the writers of thoſe times, lies under the influence of Leo, ſo does its inhabitants poſſeſs all the qua⯑lities of that noble animal. Their high cheſts, ſpark⯑ling eyes, ſtrong thick hair, ſtout bones, ſtrength, cou⯑rage, and irreſiſtible ſpirits when oppoſed, all ſhew evi⯑dently that the Lion is their ſtar, which they have likewiſe in their coat of arms".
They are handſome, ſtrong-built, and an active race of people, evidently deſcended from the Croats, who are ſome of the handſomeſt people upon the earth. Their heads are a little too large, but their broad ſhoul⯑ders, and ſtout, thick-ſet bodies, render the diſpropor⯑tion not ſo viſible, as it otherwiſe would be. They are without doubt, the beſt ſoldiers of all the Emperor's troops. They can bear the inconveniences of a mili⯑tary life, longer than any; even hunger, that deadly fiend, to every thing that calls itſelf an Imperial ſol⯑dier, they ſupport for a conſiderable time.
The conſtitution and manners of the country, con⯑tribute much to make the Bohemians ſuch ſoldiers as they are. The farmers live in a poverty which pre⯑ſerves [238] them from effeminacy and luxury, much more [...]an any poſitive ſumptuary law could do; beſides his, the feudal ſyſtem, which obtains here, in the ex⯑ [...]eme, accuſtoms them, from their youth upwards, to [...]nconditional obedience, the great military virtue of [...]ur days. Their conſtant labour and ſcanty food, [...]der them [...]ardy; and, like the Spartans, they find [...] life, far eaſier, then ploughing the fields of [...]eir [...]ſters.
This is the firſt country we come to from the eaſtward, where the people voluntarily quitted the Aſiatic habit, of veſts and gowns, and cloathed themſelves, in ſhort coats, breeches, and ſtockings, as with us. The women too have left off their drawers and breeches, which the ea⯑ſtern ladies never go without, and conform themſelves to the French dreſs; though ſome few, who live on the confines of Poland, ſtill continue to cloath them⯑ſelves like that people.
"I could not without the greateſt commiſeration," ſays Rieſbec, "look upon the handſome young farmers who, bare-footed, with torn linen, and ſtockings un⯑commonly tattered, and yet clean clothes, without neck-cloths, often without hats, were carrying corn or wood for their maſters, to market;" ſlaves to their employ⯑ers, and yet, in the beſt temper, and higheſt ſpirits.
Credulity is another ſoible the Bohemians are re⯑markable for; we every where meet with ſtories of ſpi⯑rits and apparitions: and, if we may credit the inha⯑bitants, there is not a mine in the country, which is not haunted by one or more of them.
Rieſbec tells us, he went ſome way out of his road, to a cloiſter or two to ſee the manner and way of life of the Bohemian eccleſiaſtics, in their own dwellings, and he aſſures us he was richly rewarded. "They are," ſays [240] he, "the moſt determined Epicureans, particularly the regular bodies of them, I ever met with. They want nothing in their convents, for the accompliſhment of all earthly gratifications, but a cloiſter of nuns, made up of the maidens, who do buſineſs at Prague by night. Sub jove, pluviis, in triviis et quadriviis. What⯑ever bad effects it might have, in ſome reſpect, the farmers, and manufacturers who live in the neighbour⯑hood of their convents, and conſider their wives as their property, would undoubtedly be pleaſed with the arrangement. As things now are, the monks, and half- [...]nks, to whom the villages round belong, ap⯑pear like ſo many women-hunters.— In ſome convents we met with ſinging women.
The lives of the regular bodies, and even of the Be⯑nedictines, who have not given up the pleaſures of the world, is a perpetual carouſal, interrupted only by coun⯑try walks, and certain ſtated belchings in church. They look upon chaunting the ſervice, as a kind of expecto⯑ration, good for the lungs. One of them, for whom I expreſſed ſome concern, on ſeeing him [...]at immenſe quantities of eggs, butter, &c. on a faſt-day, ſaid jeſtingly, "Pſhaw, it will all come up again at after⯑noon-ſervice."
With reſpect to handicraft-trades and a [...]ts, the Bohe⯑mi [...]ns are as much adapted to them as other nations, but apply not themſelves to the fine manufactures. Indeed, at L [...]pa, Neuhau [...] and Reich [...]nberg, a good cloth is made; [241] at Beraun and Leipa, good potters work; at Benſen fine paper, and, at at other places, good knife and ſword-blades and a fine ſort of glaſs.
Their commerce is but ſmall; corn and malt is export⯑ed into Saxony, and the former into Bavaria. Hops and the ſpaw-waters of Egra are alſo plentifully ſent out of the kingdom, and a great quantity of their paper, pottery, and glaſs; and to prevent the importation of ſuch articles as are made in the country, a high duty is laid on them.
The Bohemians travel much. Some, as dealers in glaſs, will go as far as England and Italy, and ſome as baſket and ſ [...]eve-makers. Reiſbec ſays, he has met with large caravans of them, on the Upper-Rhine, and in the Ne⯑therlands. Theſe people commonly return home with pretty large ſums of money, and keep together like bro⯑thers whilſt in foreign countries. They have indeed, an uncommon ſhare of patriotiſm, and a kind of confidence in each other, which makes them paſs in the eyes of ſtrangers for a ſavage and barbarous people, though in reality they are not ſo.
Since the days of Huſs they have a ſecret hatred to the Germans, and an unſpeakable averſion to whatever is German; which does not ariſe ſo much from bad temper, as from a kind of national pride. Moſt of the farmers, who live near the roads, ſpeak German; but as they do not like to talk to a ſtranger, without neceſſity; they pretend not to underſtand a word of what the traveller ſays, and make their ſport of him amongſt themſelves.
CHAP. III. Of their Language, Learning, Government, &c.
[242]THEIR language, like that of the Poles, is a dialect of the ancient Sclavonian; a language ſo copious and ſure, that their ancient laws required the true pronunciation and orthography of it to be ſtrictly obſerved, which was exceedingly difficult, having the uſe of no other letters than the Runic characters; but afterwards, when Germany came to have a more intimate correſpondence with Bo⯑hemia, the Roman letters were introduced, and their lan⯑guage became more refined. The modern Bohemians however are very remiſs in this particular, and the no⯑bility conſider it as beneath them to ſpeak their native tongue, chuſing rather the high Dutch, or a jargon be⯑tween the two.
Learning [...]a [...]ri [...]es but in [...]fferently here. There is a univerſity at Prag [...]e, but it loſt its reputation about the middle of the fifteenth century. It is under the in⯑ſpection of the Jeſuits, who have, here and there, academi⯑cal colleg [...]s, and gymnaſia.
The Jeſuit [...] have here one of the largeſt colleges belong⯑ing to their order, thoſe of Go [...] and Liſbon excepted: [...] fathers of that order conſtantly reſide here. Their [...]ools in th [...] [...]ity are very full, near 2700, Their li⯑brary [243] is worth notice, very light and lofty, adorned with galleries well contrived. In the mathematical cabinet erected here, among other inſtruments, are a moving ar⯑millary ſphere, on Tycho Brahe's ſyſtem, and a large ſex⯑tant made by him; a kind of perpetual motion, conſiſting of balls [...]unning in a circular motion; various ſorts of clock-work, &c. To the ſame great man is owing the following ingenious invention [...] by fixing two convex glaſſes, placed at the di [...]e of 32 feet, oppoſite to each other, ſome tinder and gunpowder, laid at the focus of one glaſs, take fire by blowing on a hot coal at the focus of the other. Theſe glaſſes are of a parabolical convexity. M. Du Foy, in 1728, exhibited this experiment before the academy of ſciences at Paris, and maintained that two ſpherical glaſſes would produce the ſame effect, even at a greater diſtance. Tycho Brahe though a native of Denmark, retired here, was a privy counſellor to the Emperor, ended his days at Prague, and was here buried with his wife and children. A monument in one of the churches is erected to his me⯑mory, and under it he is repreſented on a baſſo-relievo of marble, in armour, with a long ſword by his ſide, a band and whiſkers, leaning with his right hand on a celeſtial ſphere.
Prague, like Vienna, abounds in literati, who are content to line their rooms, with the buſts, medals, prints and pro⯑files of learned men, but neither think, or write for them⯑ſelves; and are only called Literati from belonging to no other aſſociation of men whatever. It is here, ſays Baron [244] Reiſbec, as at Vienna, whoever has neither military nor civil employment, nor is profeſſor, nor prieſt, nor merchant, nor handicrafts-man, nor manufacturer, nor ſervant, nor day-labourer, nor (what in the catalogue paſſes for a man) ex⯑ecutioner, is a man of letters, whether he ſtudies or not. In the general acceptation, a man of letters, is only a nega⯑tive quality. I was, continues the Baron, acquainted with a few poſitive literati at Prague, but their number, in com⯑panion of the negative, is very inconſiderable.
The Bohemians, however, who apply themſelves to the arts and ſciences, are generally ſpeaking, ſucceſsful in them. They do not want genius, and have uncommon induſtry. Their fondneſs for muſic is aſtoniſhing. I have, ſays Reiſbec, heard ſeveral orcheſtras here which equalled thoſe of Paris in brilliancy of execution, and ſurpaſſed them in accuracy and exactneſs of harmony. Bohemian players on the horn and harp, are to be met with throughout all Germany. As they always bring home large ſums of money, you ſeldom ſee a muſician of this kind, who has not travelled. Moſt of the ſtudents of Rome are muſici⯑ans, and begin, very early in life, to give ſerenades and concerts in the ſquares, and public places of the city.
Of the religion of this country, I will be more particu⯑lar. Chriſtianity was introduced here, about the year 890, but about 1403, ſome ſcholars who had attended Richard of England's Queen (who was a Bohemian) to London, and had converſed with the diſciples of Wickliffe; on their [245] return, communicated their doctrine to John Huſs a doctor of the univerſity of Prague, who from the hints he thus received, began to reflect on the errors of the church of Rome, and with Jerome, a maſter of arts of that univerſity, began a reformation, by preaching againſt the Pope's ſu⯑premacy, and other tenets of the Roman-catholic church, and brought over great part of the Bohemians to their way of thinking. This brought Huſs and Jerome to the ſtake, and put their adherents under the bar, which occa⯑ſioned a bloody war, that continued many years. In 1547 the greater part of the Moravian or Bohemian brethren, were baniſhed their country and fled to Poland and Pruſ⯑ſia. In the ſixteenth century the Lutherans increaſed con⯑ſiderably in Bohemia, and a toleration was granted in 1575. In 1616, Matthias, Emperor of Germany, declar⯑ed his couſin Ferdinand, King of Bohemia, and cauſed him to be crowned, and this Ferdinand ſo oppreſſed the pro⯑teſtants, that an inſurrection took place, the Proteſtants. threw the emperor's chief juſtice out of the caſtle-window two ſtories high, or 28 ells (Keyſ [...]er ſays, ſix ſtories) and after him, one of the council of ſtate, and a ſecretary of the emperor, (which window they ſhew to ſtrangers to this day) raiſed an army, and offered the crown to Frederick V. Elector Palatine, who married Elizabeth daughter of James I. King of England. This prince accepted the throne, and was crowned in November, 1619. Ferdinand, King of Bohemia, who had ſucceeded to the empire, pro⯑claimed him as a rebel, marched an army againſt him, and on the white hill near Prague, as I have mentioned, defeat⯑ed [246] Frederick, and obliged him to fly into Sileſia, and from thence to Holland, whereby, he not only loſt Bohemia, but his whole pala [...]inate; ſince which the kingdom of Bohemia has been enjoyed by the imperial family. In 1627, the Proteſtants were deprived of their privileges, and ſuch as would not ſubmit to the Roman-catholic church, were expelled the kingdom. From that time po⯑pery has been the ruling religion in Bohemia. The few remaining Lutherans were afterwards obliged to conceal themſelves as much as poſſible.
The archbiſhop of Prague is legate of the holy apoſ⯑tolic ſee of Rome, is a prince of the holy Roman empire, primate of the kingdom, and ſtanding chancellor of the univerſity of Prague. He crowns the King, and has two ſuffragan biſhops under him, thoſe of Leutmeritz and Ko⯑nigingratz. The archiepiſcopal conſiſtory has the ſole ſu⯑preme juriſdiction over the clergy, and from it lies an ap⯑peal to the King or Pope.
The Huſſites are ſtill very numerous in this country, ſome think that a fourth part of the people are of that ſect [...] which has alſo ſpread widely in Moravia. Within theſe ten years, more than 10,000 farmers made a ſmall ſtand to recover their freedom of opinion, but they were ſoon qui⯑eted. Huſs attacked the whole ſyſtem of the Roman-catholic church, purgatory, faſts, monkery, &c. and, it is certain, his diſciples were only one ſtep behind Calvin.
[247]How ſtrange is the policy of this country! The govern⯑ment of Bohemia allows the Jews, the profeſſed enemies of chriſtianity, freedom of thought, and liberty to ſerve God in their own way, and refuſes it to Chriſtians like themſelves. Whilſt a hoſtile, dreadful, treacherous peo⯑ple, are maintained in the full poſſeſſion of their rights and privileges, contracts have been repeatedly violated with the Huſſites.
A word or two of their government, ſhall cloſe our account of this country.
Bohemia is frequently conſidered as part of Germany, but, it is one of the Emperor's hereditary countries, and ex⯑cluded from thoſe privileges, which the other circles and electorates enjoy; except that the Imperial family, as Kings of Bohemia, have a voice in the election of a king of the Romans. For near 200 years the Auſtrian family have claimed the kingdom of Bohemia, with the incorporate provinces of Sileſia and Moravia, as their hereditary dominions, governing them by no other laws than their own will and pleaſure. Sileſia indeed has been diſputed, and is divided, as I have mentioned, between Pruſſia and Bohemia. The King, as elector of Bohemia, precedes all temporal electors, and owns no vicar of the Roman empire. He is arch-cup-bearer of the holy Roman empire, and on this office reſts the King of Bohemia's right to elect a king of the Romans.
[248]The arms of Bohemia are a ſilver lion with a double tail on a field, gules.
The crown of Bohemia was preſerved one hundred years elective by the nobility as in Poland, till it ſettled in the preſent Auſtrian family. Their huſbandmen, tradeſmen and mechanicks were, and ſtill are, in a ſtate of vaſſalage to their reſpective lords, who have the entire diſpoſal of them, and adminiſter juſtice as they ſee fit, in their ſeve⯑ral courts. Nor does the government interfere in their deciſions, but in ſome extraordinary caſes, where it may affect the ſtate, or where the life of the ſubject may be wantonly taken away; ſo that every lord is, in effect, a monarch in his own territories.
SILESIA.
[]CHAP. I.
AUSTRIAN, as well as Pruſſian, Sileſia was former⯑ly a part of the kingdom of Poland, but many German colonies having ſettled there in the 13th cen⯑tury, gave riſe to the ſeparation which was afterwards thoroughly effected.
The Poles having entertained a diſguſt againſt the Si⯑leſian Dukes, on account of their adopting the German manners, ſoon paved the way for Wenzel II. king of Bohemia to aſcend the throne of Poland in 1292. This monarch marched an army through Sileſia, where ſeve⯑ral Princes ſubmitted to him, whoſe example was gra⯑dually followed by the reſt: thus they all came under the Bohemian government, taking their lands in fief from the crown.
This change was ratified by the Poliſh kings, for Caſimir, the then reigning king, entered into a cove⯑nant [250] with John, king of Bohemia, by virtue of which he reſigned Sileſia to him and his ſucceſſors, as the lat⯑ter alſo on his part diſclaimed all right to Poland.
By virtue of a Golden Bull, procured by the empe⯑ror, Charles IV. in 1355, Sileſia was ſolemnly united to the crown of Bohemia: which conſtitution laſted till the death of Charles VI. in 1740. But Frederick II. king of Pruſſia, revived after this, the claim of the electoral houſe of Brandenburg to the duchies of Jagerndorf, Lignitz, Brieg, and Wohlaw; to accompliſh which he marched an army into Sileſia, and a war was the con⯑ſequence with the houſe of Auſtria; in which the form⯑er having ſucceſsfully reduced all the Lower Sileſia, to⯑gether with the greateſt part of the Upper, and the County of Glatz to his ſubjection, he was confirmed in it by the treaties of Breſlau and Dreſden, in 1742, and 1745.
Since the latter period, the king of Pruſſia has ruled this part of Sileſia, independant of the crown of Bohemia and the German empire. And hence it comes to paſs, that it is only the reſidue of Sileſia the Houſe of Auſtria is now in poſſeſſion of, as a Bohemian fief: and thus becomes connected with the German Empire.
The territories of Auſtrian Sileſia conſiſt of four prin⯑cipalities, namely, Teſchen, Troppau, Jagerndorf, and Grotkau.
[251]There are no conſiderable cities in Auſtrian Sileſia, but many ſmall towns and villages; however none ſuffi⯑ciently intereſting to give the reader a deſcription of. The inhabitants are, like their neighbours, the Bohemians and Germans, tall, athletic, and robuſt in ſtature. The people of quality are ſaid to be naturally brave, and more inclined to arms than to the milder arts and ſcien⯑ces; and of an eaſy, affable converſation. On the con⯑trary, the lower claſs of people are brutiſh and very cruel, given to every ſpecies of vice, particularly thoſe that ariſe from intemperance in the immoderate uſe of ſpiri⯑tuous liquors. For the moſt part, thoſe people are, like the Highlanders of Scotland, very much addicted to the idle fancies of a ſecond ſight, indulging the notions of apparitions and ſpectres, ſo that every cave or ſolitary abode, with which this country greatly abounds, is ſaid to be haunted: this raiſes a continual dread and terror in the inhabitants; ſolely from the chimerical operations of a diſtempered imagination; which to a long indulged habit, create ſuch lively repreſentations of ſupernatural objects, that the diſtemper can ſcarcely ever be eradi⯑cated.
Auſtrian Sileſia is ſubject to Bohemian laws; for neither the arts or laws of the German Diet or empire are of any force here, as with the ſubjects of Bohemia; they acknowledge only their own princes of the houſe of Auſtria.
[252]The manufactures of the country are linen and woollen! in which they are arrived at no great perfection. Cop⯑per, tin, and iron are alſo tolerably well performed in their manufactories. The imports are very inconſi⯑derable.
This country is interſperſed with rocks and moun⯑tains, which are very barren; but the valleys are fertile, and produce every neceſſary of life; with ſeveral mines of copper, lead, and iron.
The cattle are partly of the ſame denominations of thoſe in England, therefore we ſhall omit their deſcrip⯑tion; their fowls, and game are very numerous.
The buildings are erected in the Italian ſtile: the uſual dwellings are of wood; but the churches are of ſtone. Their way of travelling is much the ſame as in Germany, but the roads are very bad. The lower grounds are deep in water, and the mountainous part of the country is inconvenient for wheel-carriages; which in winter are ſupplied by ſledges on the ice, both on the higher and lower parts of the country.
In ſpeaking of Bohemia, we have noticed that this province principally belongs to Pruſſia. It is formed of different ſects in their religion. His late majeſty, Frederick II. king of Pruſſia, at the peace of Berlin, in 1742, permitted the Popiſh religion to continue in [253] ſtatu quo, though without detriment to the freedom of conſcience of his Proteſtant inhabitants, or to his own prerogative, as ſovereign.
The reformation in Sileſia was firſt introduced in 1522, by the principality of Lignitz, under the auſpices of Frederick II. duke of Lignitz. Breſlau and Schwednitz ſoon embraced Lutheraniſm: and after theſe followed almoſt every principal town of the provinces in Sileſia. The Augſburg confeſſion was granted by the emperor as a toleration for its free exerciſe. Schools were publickly permitted. Yet after the death of Rodolphus II. em⯑peror of Germany, great violence was uſed to bring the proteſtants into the pale of the Romiſh church.
The celebrated Charles the XIIth, king of Sweden, interfered in behalf of the Lutherans in 1707, and ob⯑tained for them a free exerciſe of their religion. In this famous convention, the Calviniſts were not included, conſequently the fiery zealots of the Romiſh perſuaſion ſoon found means to extirpate them. However, after ſome remonſtrances and petitions the late great Frede⯑rick II. king of Pruſſia recalled them, and gave them leave to exerciſe their mode of religious worſhip public⯑ly in Breſlau, and ſeveral other parts of this province. The Huſſites, or Bohemian reformed, have alſo ſeveral congregations here.
[254]Sileſia has ever been famous for producing men of learning, of whom not a few have been very eminently diſtinguiſhed in the republic of letters, baron Wolfius, the celebrated philoſopher, was a native of this country.
The Germanic body is obliged to take into its defence and protection the kingdom of Bohemia with all its de⯑pendencies, and, of courſe, Sileſia is included. But the King of Pruſſia having obtained the greateſt part of it by the partition of 1751, holds it independent of the empire. The Emperor being guarantee for his quiet poſſeſſion of it; he cannot fail in the ſovereignty.
A DESCRIPTION OF HUNGARY. From Buſching, Brown, Keyſler, Rieſbec, Moore, Montagu, &c.
[]CHAP. I. Of the Country, Climate, and Productions.
HUNGARY, with its incorporated countries, Scla⯑vonia, Dalmatia, Boſnia, Servia, and Tranſylva⯑nia, &c. is bounded by the Carpathian Mountains in the north, dividing it from Poland; by Walachia on the weſt; by Germany on the eaſt; by Venetian Dalma⯑tia and the Adriatic Sea on the ſouth eaſt, and by Euro⯑pean Turkey on the ſouth; lying between 45 and 49 de⯑grees [256] of north latitude, and from the 16th to the 22d degree of longitude from the meridian of London. Its northern parts are mountainous and barren; but its ſouth⯑ern, level, warm, and fruitful.
The plains of Hungary are clear and open, and if compared with our Engliſh plains, as Saliſbury, Lin⯑coln, and Newmarket, exceed them in ſize, as a full grown man does a child. I have travelled, ſays Brown, from Vienna to Belgrade through one continued plain for 400 miles, without any eminencies, except one incon⯑ſiderable wood near Bacna, beyond Dotis. Upper Hun⯑gary has good ſtore of woods and hills, yet interming⯑led with large plains. Hungary, with the incorporated provinces, contains 4760 ſquare Engliſh miles.
The air is very unwholeſome, eſpecially to foreigners; the days in ſummer being exceſſive hot, and the nights intolerably cold. Hungary has been called the German ſoldier's grave, generally producing a fever, which firſt ſhews itſelf by nodes and tubercles on the hands and arms. The plague comes here from Turkey, and ſpreads by contagion. The Carpathian mountains are over-run at bottom with common trees; higher up, with larger ones, and at a greater interval, which makes, as it were the third region, with bruſh-wood. The ſummit is a chaos of frightful crags and precipices, continually covered with ſnow, and lakes of very tranſparent water lying between them.
[257]In rivers this country perhaps excells any other in Europe; on the eaſt, it has that noble river Teys, or Ti⯑biſcus, riſing in the Carpathian mountains, and joining its current with the Danube, between Waradin and Bel⯑grade; on the weſt, is the Araba, which empties into the Danube; on the ſouth, are two conſiderable rivers, the Drave and the Save, which run each a courſe of 300 miles, and empty alſo into the Danube; and on the north, are two rivers joining likewiſe the Danube.
The Danube is the greateſt of the whole, being ſwel⯑led by the junction of other rivers. Its runs quite through Hungary, receiving in its courſe 120 rivers, 60 of which are navigable, and diſcharges itſelf by ſeveral outlets with ſuch violence into the Black Sea, that both the ſtream and water are perceptible in it for ſeveral miles diſtance. It begins to be navigable near Ulm in Suabia, paſſes by Ingolſtadt, Ratiſbon, Shawbing, Lentz and Vienna to Preſburg, and thence continues its courſe 300 miles through Hungary to Belgrade.
No river has ſuch large and well peopled iſlands as the Danube, for example, the iſle of St. Andrew's, betwixt Vicegrade and Vacia; another a little below Buda, againſt the weſt ſide of which ſtands Adom, 40 Engliſh miles long, and containing many villages; an⯑other oppoſite to Mohatz, another at the confluence of the Drave and Danube, and another new one near Bel⯑grade, where, till within this century, there was not the [258] leaſt trace of an iſland to be ſeen. Beſides, no river at ſuch a diſtance from its mouth, can boaſt of ſo many conſiderable, naval engagements as the Danube. The Emperor keeping gallies at Vienna, Preſburgh, and Co⯑morrah, as do the Turks at Strigonum, Buda, Belgrade, &c. In Turkiſh hiſtory we are told, that at a ſiege of Belgrade, there appeared 200 gallies and other armed veſſels, and that theſe were ſo ſmartly engaged by the Chriſtian fleet, that beſides what were taken, the Turks were obliged to fire their own ſhips, to prevent their fall⯑ing into the hands of the enemy. The Chriſtians alſo had a fleet of 24 gallies, and 80 other armed veſſels, be⯑ſides tenders and ſhips of burden at the ſiege of Buda. And when Solyman the Magnificent lay before Vienna, the Imperial admiral coming out of Preſburgh, ſunk the Turkiſh veſſels, which carried the heavy cannon intended for battering the walls.
Here are alſo two remarkable lakes, one in the pala⯑latinate of Simigen, eight German miles long, and two broad, and another between the palatinates of Olden⯑burg and Wieſſelburg.
Theſe rivers and lakes abound with fiſh. The Teys is ſo well ſtocked, that a thouſand carps have been ſold for a crown, and in ſome places fiſh are ſo plentiful, that they feed their hogs with them.
[259]Whilſt ſpeaking of the waters, I muſt not omit to mention the many ſalutary hot baths with which this country abounds. The natural baths of Buda are the nobleſt in Europe, not only in reſpect of the largeſt hot ſprings, but in the magnificence of the buildings. I will ſpeak of theſe when deſcribing Buda.
In the diſtrict of Torner, in the eaſtern part of Upper Hungary at Szélitz, near Torna, is a wonderful cavern in a mountain. The aperture which fronts the ſouth is 18 fathoms high, and eight broad, and of courſe wide enough to receive the ſouth wind, which generally blows here with great violence. Its ſubterraneous paſſages conſiſt entirely of ſolid rock, ſtretching away further ſouth than has yet been diſcovered. As far as it is practicable to go, the height is found to be 50 fathoms, and the breadth 26. But the moſt unaccountable ſingularity in this ca⯑vern is, that, in the heart of winter, the air is warm in the inſide, and, when the heat of the ſun without is ſcarce ſupportable, freezing cold within. When the ſnow melts in ſpring, the inſide of the cavern, where its ſurface is expoſed to the ſultry ſun, emits a pellucid water, which congeals as it drops, by the extreme cold: the icicles are of the ſize of a large caſk, and ſpreading into rarifica⯑tions, form very odd figures. It is obſerved alſo that the greater the heat without, the colder it is within, and in the dog-days all parts are covered with ice. The in⯑habitants uſe it for cooling the warm ſprings; they thaw it alſo and drink the water. In autumn, when the nights [260] grow cold, and the diurnal heat abates, the ice in the cave begins to diſſolve ſo faſt, that by winter, no more ice is to be ſeen. The cavern then becomes perfectly dry and warm. At this time it is ſurpriſing to ſee the ſwarms of flies and gnats, of bats and owls, of hares and foxes, that make this place their winter-retreat, till in the beginning of ſpring it grows too cold for them. Above the cavern the hill riſes to a very great height, and on the ſouthern aſpect produces plenty of rich graſs.
The Hungarians have many ſpecies of wild beaſts, ſuch as wolves, bears, lynxes, &c. vaſt plenty of game, great ſtore of ſheep, ſome with ſpiral horns and long curled wool, and ſuch prodigious numbers of oxen, that 100,000 are ſent annually to other countries; and they are all aſh coloured, or white. They have alſo plenty of buffalos, with which they plough their ſtiff lands. Their horſes are rather ſmall but ſwift, and in the woods are bred the moſt active, hardy, and ſpirited race, for their ſize, in the world. They have been found very uſeful in war, and the Huſſars, or light dragoons, of the Auſtrian army are mounted on them. They are moſtly mouſe-coloured. Even their poultry is diſtin⯑guiſhed by their ſize and ſhape. In ſhort, all that breathes here atteſts either by its growth or agility, the wonderful vigour of nature.
[261]Hungary is, without doubt, the richeſt part of the Au⯑ſtrian dominions. It not only produces every thing that is produced in other countries, but feeds them with its overflow, and excels them as much in the quality, as in the quantity of what it produces. It has ſuch a ſuper⯑fluity of the neceſſaries and enjoyments of life, that a traveller has ſaid of it, Extra Hungariam non eſt vita, & ſi eſt, non eſt ita; that is, ‘Out of Hungary there is no living, or if there be living, it is not life.’ But here we have great occaſion to obſerve the truth of that ax⯑iom, that the more nature does for man, the leſs he commonly does for himſelf. The inhabitant of the Swiſs mountains extracts his ſuſtenance from his nakedneſs, and has changed wilderneſſes into cultivated and inhabi⯑ted lands; the Hollander has turned the muddy ſands of the Rhine and Maeſe, what the ſea is conſtantly diſ⯑puting with him, into a garden, whilſt the excellent grounds in Hungary ſtill lie waſte. Not only a great part of this fruitful land is uncultivated, but even that which is, is not turned to near the advantage it might be. They never dreſs their lands, ſuffer more than half the ground to lie fallow, and their common mode of beating out the grain, is by driving oxen, as did the ancients, among the corn, by which half of it is loſt. In travelling over this country, ſays Reiſbec, you think yourſelf going over a wild, though, in fact, you are upon a ſoil, which with little trouble would produce 50, 60, or even a hundred⯑fold. The roads are of an immenſe breadth, and the fields adjoining them of ſo little value, that the poſtil⯑lions [262] drive through them without the leaſt ceremony, whenever a little mud or rain, in the highway, reminds them of its being more convenient.
The inhabitants excuſe their bad farming, by the little value which grain bears. Every thing indeed is very cheap in this country. They ſay that if their har⯑veſts were ten times greater, they ſhould gain nothing by them. There may be ſome truth in this, but the fault is certainly owing to bad government, for the va⯑lue of grain would undoubtedly increaſe with an increaſed population, but ſtrange as it is, ſays Ricſbec, government rather ſeeks to diſcourage than promote agriculture.
The exportation of Hungarian wines, one of the richeſt products of the country, and which if it were free, would ruin the ſale of French wines in the north, is clogged with innumerable obſtacles, left the trade of Auſtrian wines ſhould be hurt. Their grapes are both large and of a luſcious flavour. Their Tokay wine is in high eſtimation. There are near 30 ſorts of Hun⯑garian wine ſold at Vienna. They improve their lands only by paring and burning, and inſtead of barns or hay and corn-ſtacks, they ſtow their harveſt away, in deep and ſpacious caves under-ground, where they retire alſo with their families, in caſe of invaſion by the Turks or Tartars. Their bread is very light, owing to their kneading it long, and very cheap; as much may be bought for 2d. as is ſold in England for 12d.
[263]The artificial appearance of the country is as re⯑markable as the natural. In one place, perhaps you ſee palaces upon which art has exhauſted all its magnificence, and within a few paces you come to countries where men dwell in caverns like wild beaſts. At Preſburg, Port and Oſſen, which are the largeſt cities in the country, and each of which contains 30,000 men, you believe your⯑ſelf in the moſt enchanted country in the world; and within a few miles of their gates, you ſeem to be in Mingrelia.
The ſtrongeſt proof poſſible of the miſery of a country, is the contraſt of extreme poverty with extreme riches; and the more ſtriking that contraſt is, the greater the miſery. A people may be very poor, and yet very hap⯑py, but when amidſt ſtraw huts, ſcarce protecting their inhabitants from wind and weather, we ſee marble pa⯑laces towering to the clouds; when in the midſt of immenſe wilderneſſes, tenanted by wretched ſkeletons, who barely find roots in the field to keep life and ſoul together, we meet with gardens decorated with foun⯑tains, and in them grottos, parterres, terraces, ſtatues and coſtly pictures, it is a ſure ſign that one part of the people live by pi [...]laging the reſt.
I will now ſpeak of the Hungarian mines. I mean the gold mines of Cremnitz, Konigſberg, Schemnitz, &c. all dependant on Auſtria, having been formerly mort⯑gaged to Auſtria by the kings of Hungary. There are ſeven of theſe mine-towns, to which belong four lord⯑ſhips, [264] three days journey in length, extending to the borders of Poland. The ſupreme officer here is the commiſſioner of the revenue. All monies paſs through his hands, and he judges, without appeal, both in civil and criminal cauſes; he has 83 officers under him. His appointment is 4000 guldens a year, and 450 for the expence of his table, (a gulden is 2s. 4d. Engliſh.)
Theſe mines are the ſupport of many thouſands, and the expence of working the whole amounts yearly to 100,000 guldens. Pure, gold ore, like that of Tranſyl⯑vania is here found in the Hungarian mines, but the lat⯑ter yields gold ore with a mixture of ſilver or lead. A quintal of the richeſt ore yields 35 ounces of ſilver; but ſome that is refined does not yield more than two ounces in a hundred weight. That which yields leaſt ſil⯑ver, contains moſt gold. The mine of Schemnitz an⯑nually produces ſomething above five quintals of gold, and, with the alloy, half an ounce of gold makes five du⯑cats, each ducat 9s. 6d. Engliſh. In the general mint from all theſe towns, near 100,000 ducats are coined yearly; yet ſome affirm that the annual clear profits of theſe works amount to 60,000 guldens, the Emperor's ſhare only.
As a precaution againſt mal-practices, or embezzle⯑ment, all the officers and perſons employed here, are ſworn, and excluded from having any ſhare in the mines. The workmen labour eight hours, and are then relieved. [265] One of the mines at Schemnitz, (which is the largeſt of all the mine-towns; is well built, has three caſtles, and three handſome churches) is 70 fathoms deep, built and kept open with under-work, at a vaſt expence; the greateſt part of it being a rocky ſoil. The ore is very rich, and generally blue, covered with a white clay. The ore runs in veins, and as they have no certain method of knowing where they lie, they proceed by gueſs, and per⯑ſevere in their labour till they meet with them. There is one place where they dug for ſix ſucceſſive years, and when they at laſt diſcovered the vein, they found it but two fathoms diſtant from the place where they firſt be⯑gan to dig. There is another place where they dug 12 years, before they found the vein, but this proved ſo rich, as to pay them well in a ſhort time. Within the mines, they have large wheels, 36 feet in diameter, turned by ſubterranean ſtreams, which work engines that pump up the collected water. The ſtreams that turn theſe wheels are not ſuffered to run into the mines, but are carried off by trunks, and horizontal paſſages. On the top, or outſide of the mines are wheels turned by 10 or 12 horſes, that pump up the water alſo.
The gold mine at Chremnitz has been worked near 1000 years, and is nine or ten Engliſh miles in length. It has one cuniculus or horizontal paſſage, 800 fathoms long, and its depth is 170 fathoms, into which the miners are let down in a kind of leather ſeat, faſtened at the end of a cable, and the cable turned by a wheel. [266] Such cables are worth 7 or 800 guldens each, and will not laſt above eight or ten weeks. In theſe mines the air is ſometimes very cold, and ſometimes ſo hot that the miners work naked.
The gold ore is ſometimes white, ſometimes black, ſome red, and ſome yellow, but the white, with black ſpots, is accounted the beſt. There have been pieces of pure gold found in this mine, as large as the palm of the hand, but ſuch pieces are very rare. In the Empe⯑ror's muſeum at Vienna, is ſhewn a vine-ſtock, with a gold wire twining round it, which it is ſaid naturally grew thus out of the earth. It was found in a vineyard near Tokay, in the year 1670, and preſented to the Em⯑peror as a moſt extraordinary curioſity. Tokay is re⯑markable for its excellent wine, and the ſpot of land that produces this wine is ſeven Hungarian, or 56 Eng⯑liſh miles in circumference. This tract is interſperſed with ſeveral towns; and as Tokay is not a proper liquor for common drinkers, if all the waſte lands in this diſ⯑trict was cultivated, no part of Europe would be without Tokay wine at a moderate price.
The occaſional damps in theſe mines have deſtroyed numbers of miners at a time, when they have not been prepared againſt them. The method of preſerving the gold, is by firſt grinding and draining the ore, then waſhing it, and after all melting the ſediment.
[267]The number of the ſeveral labourers, &c. employed in the mines of Schemnitz, amounts to 5 or 6000 men, and thoſe without the mines are computed at 2000, ex⯑cluſive of thoſe employed about the carriages: 1500 horſes are uſually taken up for theſe works, and a little carriage with two horſes is hired for about ſix or ſeven guldens per week. The Emperor's expences in the Schemnitz mines alone, is yearly near 59,000l. Out of 128 ſhares, the Emperor has 123, the other five are pri⯑vate property. Some noble families are ſettled in the mine-towns, and the greater part of their income ariſes from the mines. At Hana, near Eperiez, is dug a whitiſh ore, which yields a great deal of quickſilver, extracted per deſcenſum.
Within ſix Engliſh miles of Chremnitz, is a warm bath, about the heat of the king's bath, at Bath, much fre⯑quented, and where both ſexes bathe promiſcuouſly; the men wearing only a kind of drawers, and the women a ſhift wrapped over their heads.
CHAP. II. Of the Cities.
[268]GRAN was formerly the capital of Hungary, till the Hungarians loſt it; thence Buda became the capital; now Preſburg is the metropolis. It is a regu⯑lar city, ſituated in a ſpacious plain, on the banks of the Danube, at the foot of a mountain. Preſburg itſelf is ill-built, the houſes of the town, properly ſo called, not much exceeding two hundred, and the whole ſtrength of its fortifications conſiſts in a double wall and a moat. But the ſuburbs are large and handſome, and contain four univerſities, with churches, and two hoſpitals. Preſburg lies in latitude 48 deg. 8 min. and is only 40 Engliſh miles diſtant from Vienna. Some of the ſub⯑urbs riſe on a ſteep hill, and the citadel or caſtle ſtands on the top of it. It is a grand, quadrangular, Gothic building, with four towers at the corners, exactly alike, and is the uſual reſidence of Prince Albert of Saxony. From this citadel is a very extenſive proſpect, com⯑manding the vaſt and fertile plains of Hungary, to⯑wards Belgrade. The crown, and other regalia of Hungary are left in one of the above-mentioned tow⯑ers, but as the entrance to this caſtle is through three iron doors, the guards poſted between the two firſt doors, by means of a grate can ſee every one that comes up the ſteps, leading to the entrance. In [269] the lower ſuburbs is a hill, where the king of Hungary, at his coronation, goes in great ſtate on horſe-back, and brandiſhes his ſword towards the four cardinal points, to ſignify that he is determined to protect his frontiers from enemies on all ſides. In this city the ſtates of Hungary hold their aſſemblies, and in the cathedral church the Sovereign is crowned. The regalia, conſiſting of the crown and ſceptre of St. Stephen, their firſt king, are here carefully ſecured by ſeven locks, the keys of which are kept by the ſame number of Hungarian noblemen. No prince is legally their ſovereign till he is crowned with the diadem of king Stephen; and they have a notion that the fate of their nation depends on the crown's remain⯑ing in their poſſeſſion. It has therefore been moved, in times of danger, to places of the greateſt ſafety.
Old Buda is in 47 degrees 40 minutes north latitude, lying on the ſouth ſide of the Danube, ninety miles from Preſburg. It ſtands in a plain extending itſelf from the ſuburbs of New Buda to the Pellis mountains; at preſent it is a poor mean place, belonging to the Zichy fa⯑mily: in, and about it, are many ruins, with ſeveral Roman monuments. New Buda is ſituated on a moun⯑tain on the Danube, was formerly the capital of the kingdom, the reſidence of the king, and the largeſt and fineſt of all the Hungarian towns, but having been of⯑ten beſieged, taken, and deſtroyed, it is now very much reduced. The city lies on the declivity of the moun⯑tain, and its caſtle ſtands on the top of it. The Jeſuits [270] here have an academical college, and a ſeminary; the Carmelite nuns have convents, and the Franciſcans have churches. The city is ſurrounded with walls and moats, and well fortified. On the oppoſite ſide of the river ſtands the town of Peſth, in a plain, the river being croſſed by a bridge of boats: here is the ſupreme court of appeal, and a large military hoſpital, built with ſtone, 200 paces ſquare, and three ſtories high: the town is ſurrounded with a wall and moat, contains ſix convents, and ſeveral churches.
At Buda are ſome natural warm baths, which, when the Turks poſſeſſed the place, from 1529 to 1686, were the nobleſt in Europe, not only in reſpect to the ſize and heat of the ſprings, but in the magnifi⯑cence of the buildings: theſe baths are ſeven in num⯑ber. The emperor's bath is built in the manner of the rotunda at Rome, with a large aperture in the centre of the cupola, beſides ſeveral ſmall holes or windows for admitting more light into the dome. The emperor's bath, with a pond of mineral water, has this ſurprizing property, that when the water is wholly turned off, the warm ſprings ceaſe flowing; but when the pond is filled a little above half full, they return again: the heat is nearly that of the water at Bath in England. The exhala⯑tion of the emperor's baths, ſays Dr. Brown, reverberated by the cupola, form long ſtones, like icicles, which hang down from the capitals of the pillars and irons, which extend from one column to another, as is obſerved in [271] ſome other ſubterraneous grottos, for the cupola is ſup⯑ported with large columns; and though there are many openings to let out the ſteam, yet the whole ſeems like a hot ſtove. In the great bath the anti-chamber is very large, the bathing-room ſpacious, high arched, and adorned with five cupolas; one over the round bath in the middle, and one leſs at each of the four corners, where are bathing rooms for private uſes. Twelve pil⯑lars ſupport the great cupola, between eight of which are fountains of hot water, and between the others are places to ſit down, where the barber and ſervants of the bath attends, and in each of theſe places are two ciſterns of free-ſtone, into which they let hot and cold water, as the company like. In the large bath both ſexes pub⯑lickly bathe together, the men wearing only a kind of drawers, and the women what they call a fine ſhift; but the common people, for whom the Raizen bath is ap⯑pointed, look even upon this ſlight cloathing as ſuper⯑fluous. Keyſler tells us, a wide ſubterraneous paſſage, leading from Old Buda to the citadel, has been lately diſ⯑covered, and that it was a way well-known to the Turks. The wine of this place has a good flavour, is red, and much reſembles French wine. Beſides grapes, Buda is famous for fine melons, which ſell for one penny Eng⯑liſh, each.
The mode of bathing, according to Dr. Brown, is as follows; being brought into the anti-chamber, the ba⯑ther is furniſhed with a cloth and apron; when ſtripped, [272] he puts on the apron, goes into the bath-room, where, ſitting down between the pillars near a fountain, he is well rubbed, and his hands and arms ſtretched out by the barber, who next ſhaves his head and beard, ex⯑cept the upper lip, and then proceeds to rub his breaſt, back, arms, and legs, with a hair cloth; the bather ei⯑ther ſitting, or lying on his belly. Then, the barber having waſhed the head with ſoap, and thrown cold water over the body, the bather walks in the ſteam of the bath for ſome time, and afterwards bathes.
The nobility here have their villas as in England. The following deſcription of one is taken from Moore, who went to viſit a nobleman about four miles from Preſburg. His houſe is delightfully ſituated, but his gardens laid out a little too methodically; the park, however, and fields, where leſs art had been uſed, diſ⯑play a vaſt luxuriancy of natural beauties. Whilſt wan⯑dering over theſe, we entered a little wood, in a very retired place, where was a figure of painted wood dreſſed in a hermit's garb to deceive paſſengers, and well exe⯑cuted, ſtretching out his hand, as if to invite people to his hermitage hard by; over the door was this inſcription from Horace; but which for the ladies is Engliſhed:
And in another part within the hermitage.
With ſeveral more inſcriptions, taken from Cicero, in favour of the ſoul's immortality.
But of all the rural reſidences, that of Eſtherhaſie is the firſt, being the palace of the prince of that name. He is the firſt in rank of all the Hungarian nobility, and one of the moſt magnificent ſubjects in Europe. He has body-guards of his own, all genteel looking men, richly dreſſed in the Hungarian manner.
Eſtherhaſie is about 60 miles from Vienna. The pa⯑lace is a noble building, lately finiſhed, and ſituated [274] near a fine lake. The apartments are grand and con⯑venient, containing a greater variety of ſplendid furni⯑ture than moſt royal palaces can boaſt of. In the prince's private apartments are ſome muſical clocks, and one in the form of a bird that whiſtles a tune every hour.
Adjoining the palace is an opera-houſe, ſmall, but neat and elegant; and in the gardens a large ſaloon, and a commodious ſuite of rooms for maſquerades and balls. In this opera-houſe, the performers of Venice are often engaged by the prince to perform Italian operas. If any ſtrangers are at that time in the town, he ſends to them, and invites them to the exhibition, and the doors are open to all the country people around about. The ce⯑lebrated Haydn is his compoſer, at an annual ſalary.
He has alſo another theatre for puppet-ſhows, much larger, and more commodious than moſt country play⯑houſes; and Dr. Moore tells us it is the moſt ſplendid of its kind he ever ſaw. He did not ſee any piece per⯑formed, but was aſſured they were the beſt comedians in Hungary. "I had" ſays he "the curioſity to peep behind the curtain, and ſaw kings, emperors, turks, and chriſtians, all ranged very ſociably together: king Solomon was in a corner in a very ſuſpicious tête-a-tête with the queen of Sheba.
[275]Among other curioſities at this palace is a wooden houſe in the garden, built upon wheels. It contains a room, with a table, chairs, a looking glaſs, chimney and fire-place, with cloſets, and many neceſſary accom⯑modations. Twelve perſons may ſit round this table, and the prince has often entertained a company at din⯑ner, whilſt they have taken an airing round the garden, and many parts of his park, which are as level as a bowling green; the vehicle, thus loaded, is drawn eaſily by ſix or eight horſes.
The gardens are of vaſt extent, and beautiful beyond deſcription, being diverſified with woods, hills, valleys, walks, fountains, and arbours. And the deſcription of Alcina's enchanted iſland, will give, ſays Moore, a very good idea of the romantic fields of Eſtherhaſie; and which are inhabited by the ſame kind of animals.
In Engliſh thus: "Here lies one whom the wrath of Caeſar baniſhed from his native country. Often has the wretched wiſhed to be buried with his fathers, but in vain. Fate has laid this man here."
CHAP. III. Of the People, Manners, Cuſtoms, Trade, &c.
[278]THERE is no country in the world which has a greater variety of inhabitants than Hungary. The ancient poſſeſſors of the country were Tartars, and Scla⯑vonians. Amongſt the former we may reckon the Hungarians, now properly ſo called; for their manners and appearance plainly ſhew that they are of kin to the Calmucks, and deſcendants of the old Scythians. Their deep eyes, angular cheek-bones, and yellow ſkins, diſ⯑tinguiſh them from the Sclavonians, who, beſides, are whiter, more fleſhy, and ſtronger built. There are ſeveral parts of the country, in which both races are continued pure and unmixed. And beſides all theſe, there are Germans, Walachians, Bulgarians, Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Gypſies, which laſt are the richeſt of all foreigners.
All theſe people, a few of the German coloniſts, and the higher nobility excepted, who are modelled after the faſhion of the court of Vienna, are ſtill in a barbarous ſtate. Indeed, it muſt be owned, that the Court, in⯑ſtead of ſucceeding in improving them, as it has done the reſt of its ſubjects, has rather done them harm than good, by the attempts it has made for the purpoſe. [279] Whilſt they were left to themſelves, they were warlike, and like the children of nature, whom a falſe policy had not ſpoiled, open-hearted, hoſpitable, frank, and ſteady to their purpoſes. Experience, as well as true philoſophy teach us that partly by religion any ſtate may be ſucceſs⯑ful in civilizing a barbarian: any other attempt, any other reſtriction, which tends to cure him of his vices, with⯑out ſhewing him the advantage of virtue to himſelf, only makes a motley compoſition of the faults of the two ſtates.
On the very aſpect of things one ſees that the govern⯑ment of this country is inſidious. The intereſts of the higher nobility are different from thoſe of the reſt of the country; their under-tenants, which make the greateſt part of the people, are not feudal ſubjects, neither have they any real property; they are farmers who may be turned out of their farms upon the leaſt diſſatisfaction.
The nobility contributes nothing but free gifts to the neceſſities of the ſtate, though it is in poſſeſſion of half the property of the country. It is almoſt the only order in the ſtate, for, from the higher orders of theſe the prieſthood is choſen, ſo that the intereſt of theſe two or⯑ders is one. In ſhort, the boaſted freedom of Hungary is only a privilege of the nobility and clergy to live at the expence of the whole country.
In general, the Hungarians are of a good ſtature, and well proportioned. The men are of a martial appear⯑ance, [280] but the women are exceedingly fair, and ſome very beautiful. The dreſs of the men, conſiſts of a fur cap, a cloſe-bodied coat girt about with a ſaſh, and over this a cloak or mantle, which comes no lower than the hips, and is ſo contrived as to be buc⯑kled under one arm, ſo that the right hand is always at liberty.
The colours they affect in their cloaths are red, blue, or green. Young gentlemen have uſually feathers in their caps. The women of faſhion, as well as the men, imitate the French mode of dreſs, but neither ſex will leave off the ſhort cloak, or toga. The ladies are ge⯑nerally veiled, when they go abroad. The men ſhave their beards, but leave whiſkers on the upper lip.
Beſide a broad ſword, the uſual arms of an Hunga⯑rian are an iron mace, with a round head furrowed, and the balta, made in the form of a hatchet, with fire arms. The women's dreſs in the mine towns is not unbecoming. They wear knots of ribbons at their ſhift ſleeves, and others likewiſe hanging down their backs; but the peaſants, and lower ſort of people amongſt the miners, dreſs very meanly. Among the latter, the men are very proud of a furred mantle. Moſt of the wo⯑men wear boots, and many of them a long furred gown, and have a kind of ſhift of a very coarſe linen next their ſkin, with a girdle round it at their waiſt. Their head [281] dreſs is a piece of white linen with two lappets hanging down behind.
In this part of the kingdom ſky-blue is the moſt uſual colour worn by both ſexes: the predilection of the peo⯑ple here for this colour, is, that it is an emblem of a celeſtial, or exalted mind.
The Hungarians pique themſelves on being deſ⯑cended from thoſe heroes, who formed the bulwark of Chriſtiandom againſt the infidels. In the mine-towns both ſexes amongſt the lower claſſes wear ſheep-ſkin garments. The natives, in general, are an indolent peo⯑ple, and leave trade and manufactures to the Greeks and other ſtrangers ſettled in their country. Their di⯑verſions are of the warlike and athletic kind.
The inhabitants of Temeſwar, a province lately in⯑corporated into the kingdom of Hungary, are com⯑puted at about 450,000. There are in this country many Faraons or Gypſies, ſuppoſed to be real deſcend⯑ants of the ancient Egyptians. They are ſaid to reſem⯑ble the ancient Egyptians in their features, in their pro⯑penſity to melancholy, and in many of their manners and cuſtoms: and it is aſſerted that the laſcivious dances of Iſis, the worſhip of onions, many famous Egyptian ſuperſtitions and ſpecifics, and the Egyptian method of hatching of eggs by means of dung, are ſtill in uſe among the female Gypſies in Temeſwar.
[282]Hungary being plentifully watered with fine rivers, the uſual way of travelling in ſummer is by water, and where they have not this conveniency, an open chariot, drawn by three or four horſes a-breaſt, carries the tra⯑veller over this flat country with great expedition. They have alſo a very fleet breed of horſes for riding, but ne⯑ver trim them, long tails and manes being conſidered as great ornaments. The Huſſars, or Hungarian troopers, whoſe pay is ſmall, are very troubleſome to travellers, robbing all they meet, where they can do it with ſe⯑curity.
Nor are thoſe numbers of the ſturdy gypſies, that ſwarm in this country leſs dangerous, though they live in towns, and generally profeſs ſome handicraft trade. The wolves too are another great diſturbance on the road in the night-time, eſpecially where it happens to be through a wood.
The reader may readily conceive by the plenitude of theſe voracious animals, that Hungary is not well in⯑habited, otherwiſe this troubleſome race of quadrupeds would be extirpated from off the face of the land. The great extent of uncultivated plains agreeably diverſified with thickets and limpid ſprings and meandring brooks, as well as the dark receſſes of the numerous foreſts, be⯑ſpeak the ſafe retreat of theſe truly formidable race of quadrupeds: who, when preſſed by the wants of nature and the inclemency of the element, are as ravenous pro⯑bably [283] as the lions were in the den, wherein the prophet Daniel was immerged.
The roads are ſometimes only the direction of a mount, a grove, or a poſt; as few footſteps mark the beaten track ſo well known in more populous ſtates. The lonely woods know few of the human race to walk within their ſhelter. The ſolitary groves and ſtill more pleaſing landſcapes have no admirers to paint the beau⯑ties of the golden weſt, when the planet of the day ſinks beneath the towering hill. The luxuriant ſenſe wants no artificial colouring to delineate its beauties; every object conſpires to heighten the beauty of the horizontal boundary. On every hand the proſpect varies, yet none to be rejected as leſs worthy of mental enjoyment and agreeable perſpective. All are equally novel, beautiful, and pictureſque.
In the mountains near the town of Schemnitz; the hardneſs of the water produces wens of a great ſize. Theſe excreſcences are almoſt univerſal amongſt the in⯑habitants: but the water in the vallies, near that town, is ſaid to be an efficacious remedy for them.
As we are under the head of travelling, we can⯑not omit the noble bridges that are to be met with in this country; particularly the bridge at Eſſeck, built over the river Drave, and the marſhy grounds be⯑yond [284] it, being five miles long, and railed in with towers at every quarter of a mile's diſtance.
This has been a paſs much contended for in the Turkiſh wars, and occaſioned many ſmart engagements to gain the poſſeſſion of it. There lies alſo a bridge of boats, half a mile long, between Buda and Peſth; and a third over the Danube, between Gran and Barcan. But the bridge built over the Danube, 20 Hungarian miles from Belgrade, far ſurpaſſed all the reſt, ſome of the ruins being viſible at this day. It conſiſted of 20 piles of ſquare ſtone an 100 feet in height, the baſis whereof contained 60 feet on every ſide of the ſquare. The diſ⯑tance between every one of theſe piles, or pillars, was 170 feet, and joined together by arches. And to per⯑petuate the memory of this bridge, many ſilver coins were ſtamped with this inſcription, "Danubius."
The manufactories of Hungary are very inconſider⯑able, as hardware and copper are the chief articles of this deſcription. Their exports are, wine, oil, metals, minerals, cattle, leather, wool, tallow, and wax; and their imports are ſpices, tin, ſilk, and a few other fo⯑reign commodities.
That their trade is no greater may be aſcribed to ſe⯑veral cauſes, as firſt, their's being an inland country, at a diſtance from the ſea. By the Danube indeed a very profitable navigation might be carried on to the coaſt [285] of the Black ſea, and even to the Mediterranean; but as the Turks are maſters of the mouth of that river, no⯑thing of that kind can now be attempted.
If we may rely on the veracity of Baron Rieſbec, the exports amount to 24 millions a year, and the imports to 18, conſequently there is a balance of ſix millions an⯑nually in favour of the country.
With reſpect to the exports and imports, if compared, we ſhall find it impoſſible, but that the former is ſtated too high; for with a balance of trade, as Hungary muſt by this means have, it ought to be one of the richeſt countries in Europe. Whereas nothing is ſcarcer than money in this country.
If we conſider a little the variety of commodities which Hungary muſt import from abroad, it is impoſ⯑ſible it ſhould have an equal trade; it is obliged to pur⯑chaſe all the products of art, beſides an aſtoniſhing num⯑ber of thoſe of nature. The quantity of the natural pro⯑duce on the other hand, given by Hungary to the ſtran⯑ger, is very great; but that there remains a ſurplus, we ſcout the idea, as an improbability.
The negligence of the police in not ſtraining the tor⯑rent of luxury is inconceivable. I have often been tempted to believe, ſays Rieſbec, that government did not think it worth its while to attend to the trade and [286] commercial intereſts of this country, either becauſe it did not yield in proportion to its greatneſs, or that the impetuous temper of the Court was ſuch, as not to al⯑low of any eſtabliſhments that were to produce advan⯑tage to after ages. Be this as it may, whether the Court is all for preſent enjoyment, or has not political wiſdom enough to erect for futurity, the inſtances of its neg⯑lect are moſt glaring. For, notwithſtanding the ex⯑treme poverty of the country, they allow the Jews to go about with coffee, ſugar, tobacco, oil, and quack medicines of all kinds, from village to village, where they ſell them in ſmall quantities, and much adulte⯑rated.
With the power which the preſent Emperor Leopold poſſeſſes he might at once cut off all the privileges of the Hungarian nobles, which are contrary to the good of the whole, and which it has for ſo many years been endeavouring to undermine. A few families would mur⯑mur for a while, but the thing would not go beyond murmurs; the inhabitants of the towns, and the pea⯑ſants would ſtand up for the intereſts of the Court, which are their own. The religious animoſities, which ſerved formerly as a pretence for an inſurrection, would no longer blind the people to their real good. It would open a liberality of ſentiment that would ſoon win over the nobility, whom the artifices now in uſe, only alie⯑nate and corrupt.
[287]If once that part of their privileges which militates againſt the good of the whole, was well defined, and ſuppreſſed, by one ſingle act of authority, they would then be ſuſceptible of patriotic virtues: whereas, at pre⯑ſent, they look upon the government to be hoſtile to them, and do nothing but what they are compelled to by power or bribes.
In that caſe, the multitude or the inferior orders of the people would not be the abject ſlaves they now are: eſtabliſhments for polite accompliſhments would become general, and the gloom of deſpotiſm and ignorance would ſoon be removed by the lights of liberty and knowledge; and Hungary would, ere long, be one of the moſt flouriſhing countries in Europe.
The natives would be no longer poor, in the midſt of a country abounding with every neceſſary of life. The poverty of the people, and the exceſſive luxury and riches of the nobility, would no longer offend the eyes of the humane by the ſhocking diſproportion between them. Then the lively native, animated by the love of his country, and a ſenſe of his duty, would no longer refuſe to ſubmit to proper diſcipline, but gladly lay down his life in defence of his natural rights, his liberty and property; and, like a Briton, ſerve his king, be⯑cauſe he is the father of his people, and guardian of their privileges.
[288]There is hardly a Hungarian of rank, at this day, ſays Rieſbec, that is either free from debt, or that does not, like the Auſtrian man of faſhion, look upon his debts as an honour. The court of Vienna has conſequently little to fear from the commotions of the higher ranks here, as all of them are ſo ſtrongly attached to the modes of the capital of the German empire, that nothing ſhort of a German lady, and a German equipage is the ton for a noble Hungarian. Therefore, notwithſtanding the diſ⯑content which reigns in the breaſts of the lower claſs of Hungarians, yet, the want of a leader with power and conſequence, will always prohibit their riſings from being any ways dangerous.
The diſſipation of the Hungarians has bound them to the court of Vienna by an indiſſoluble tie, namely, their neceſſities, which will no longer allow them to ſerve for nothing, but make the pay of the Court an object to them. The Auſtrian nobility, by privilege, take a moſt unfair advantage, whenever they find a proper opportu⯑nity, and purchaſe Hungarian eſtates, in proportion as the owners are obliged to raiſe ſupplies for the redemption of their honour, in diſcharging their debts. Hence the German influence in Hungary is very great: nor is the national court at liberty to ſhake off the yoke, which their own irregularities has obliged them to be burthened with.
[289]Now, it may be ſaid of Hungary, that it is a mixed nation, at leaſt ſo far as appertains to the firſt claſs of peo⯑ple; for the nobility, both laity and eccleſiaſtics, are nearly equally divided between natives and Auſtrians.
Beſides what has been already ſtated, the Court uſes ſeveral other means that depend upon time and circum⯑ſtances. One of the moſt efficacious is, the loading the produce of Hungary with very heavy taxes. Theſe oppreſſions indeed, immediately affect the nobility only, to whom the exports properly belong, as the reſt of the people have no property; but they hurt the whole country, and particularly the manufacturers and merchants in great towns, by the diminution of the coin in circulation.
The duties on the exports of Hungarian wines, are ſo conſiderable that the Croats who inhabit the moun⯑tains are obliged to buy the wine, which, but for theſe duties, they might have very cheap from their fellow ſubjects in Venetian Dalmatia. The fact is, ſays the honeſt baron, the court of Vienna had rather let the country loſe money than ſuffer Hungary to be rich.
Almoſt all the employments of the country which the conſtitution does not require to be given to natives are poſſeſſed by Germans, who often prove the moſt dread⯑ful deſpots. Thus in the cities of Illyria which depend intirely on the council of war, and are all under military [290] government, almoſt all the employments are held by foreigners.
The Germans have made themſelves ſo odious here by their tyranny, that the Croat knows no worſe epithet, than that of "a Swabian;" under which is compre⯑hended every thing that is deteſtable and contemptible. By the name of a Swabian the croat defines all the in⯑habitants of Germany, not excepting the Auſtrian. For the natives of Auſtria who get footing in this country, behave there like Turkiſh Pacha's, or Eaſt Indian Na⯑bobs. Their pride leads them to make the Hungarians feel that they are the ruling nation. Their diſſipation compels them to uſe every extortion to procure money; and they are made ſtill worſe than they otherwiſe would be, by the difference of their manners and religion. Thus, it is from the oppreſſion of foreigners, that the native Illyrian has taken the diſhoneſt and ſtubborn part of his character, which otherwiſe is very unnatural to him.
Notwithſtanding the principal places are generally occupied by great men, it is impoſſible to be more worthleſs than the greater number of the public ſervants are. Generally ſpeaking there is not a grain of patri⯑otiſm, a grain of knowledge, a grain of good will, or a grain of activity amongſt them. Pride, vanity, ſelf in⯑tereſt and hard-heartedneſs diſtinguiſh them all. The only thing they look up to, continues the ſame author, [291] are pay and titles, and treat buſineſs as a matter of indifference.
The native Hungarians who have a ſhare in the go⯑vernment of their own country, have infinitely better underſtanding of the buſineſs and duties of their places, and more delight in diſcharging them, than the Auſtri⯑ans; and yet theſe poſſeſs almoſt all the places, and the others are expoſed to their tyranny. The Auſtrians look upon it as indiſpenſibly neceſſary to bind them in court chains, and take away every feeling of liberty and true honour from them. They do all they can to ſtifle their national ſpirit. They have no idea of ruling over a free and ſentimental people, but conceive they muſt make ſlaves of the whole nation, in order to govern it. The moſt cruel violations of the national contract and the li⯑berty of mankind, have been thoſe which have ariſen on a religious account. It may therefore with ſafety be af⯑firmed, that it will take two centuries to come, to undo the miſchief which this Court hath done itſelf during the laſt hundred and fifty years, by the religious perſecu⯑tions in Hungary. It is indeed one of thoſe contra⯑dictions which moſt ſeemingly beſpeaks the debility of the human mind, that whilſt the Court of Vienna, on the one hand, does all it can, to promote the population and induſtry of this kingdom; on the other, it perſecutes, in every poſſible way, the induſtrious part of its ſubjects, and that part whoſe religious opinions are the moſt fa⯑vorable to population.
[292]The great fault of this government is, that they ba⯑niſh the proteſtants who are the moſt uſeful part of the ſubjects. But the want of freedom in religion explains it: it is greatly owing to this cauſe that all the uſeful men emigrate and leave Hunga [...]y only to the worthleſs ones. For it muſt be owned the former can have but little de⯑ſire to ſettle in a country, in which they muſt often go journies of ſeveral days, to ſee a prieſt of their own per⯑ſuaſion; where they are not allowed to build a church, and where the hatred towards them and their religion effectually and perpetually excludes them from all civil employments.
All theſe hindrances are removed under the gentle government of the Engliſh and Dutch, who of courſe take all the uſeful emigrants, and leave Auſtria the moſt inferior order. Thoſe that ſettle in Hungary, Reiſbec affirms, to be the moſt abandoned people, who emigrate from Bavaria, Swabia, Franconia, and the country about the Rhine. Theſe, upon their arrival, generally ſquander away the ſmall ſums of money they have raiſed at home—hence their exceſſes occaſion many to die ſuddenly, and have given the name of an unwholeſome climate to Hun⯑gary, without any truth; for no country has a more ſa⯑lubrious air and wholeſome mode of diet.
Theſe, however, ſuch as they are, would ſtill be a conſiderable gain to ſo poor a country as Hungary is, if Government was ſufficiently intereſted in their fate, to [293] provide for the exceſſes they muſt be expoſed to from the danger of the climate, and their own inexperience, and to give them ſome aſſiſtance in their firſt ſettlement. Hungary is in itſelf not more unwholeſome than Italy, Spain, the ſouth of France, or any other warm country; only, as there are moraſſes all over it, the difference be⯑tween the heat of the day and the cold of the night, muſt be very ſenſibly felt by a German.
The rich wines and delicious fruits here to be met with, are equally pernicious to the ſtranger, who muſt guard againſt their dangerous influence. The regimen of the emigrant ſhould be carefully copied from that of the native; for from the uſage of the inhabitant the favorable diet and exerciſe of any country may be eaſily acquired.
CHAP. IV. Religion, Learning, Eccleſiaſtical Juriſdiction, &c.
[294]THE ancient inhabitants of this kingdom had ſcarce any devotion, but what they paid to their ſword, which they look upon as the great preſerver of their country, and the terror of their enemies.
The Chriſtian religion was introduced here about the year 1000, by king Stephen. The Huſſites of Bo⯑hemia propagated their opinions here in the 15th cen⯑tury, and in the 16th, Luther's doctrine prevailed; but, like their neighbours, the Bohemians, they were divided into a multitude of ſects, and ſome of them not eaſily defenſible, having various ſingularities not eſſential to the cauſe they eſpouſed: however, all were known under the denomination of Proteſtants.
At preſent, about one fourth of the inhabitants of Hungary are Roman-catholics; one fourth, Greeks, Jews, and Anabaptiſts; and the other half, Lutherans and Calviniſts. The latter, it muſt be confeſſed, are far behind their brethren in other countries in knowledge and diſcipline.
From the circumſtance of the religion of the country being formerly catholic, it is natural to expect that [295] this religion ſhould be the eſtabliſhed one of the ſtate. With this no ſenſible man can be offended, notwith⯑ſtanding the comparative diminution of its members to that of the reformed church; but, to take away the 300 churches from the Proteſtants, whilſt the Jews are in⯑dulged with building as many ſynagogues as they pleaſe, is a very impolitic, and unchriſtian-like diſtribution of juſtice in the liberty of conſcience.
By the reſtleſs diſpoſition of the Jeſuits, the proteſt⯑ants were not only deprived of the public uſe of churches, but their ſchools were prohibited, ſo that they were obli⯑ged to ſend their youth to foreign ſeminaries for education. Thus the Court of Vienna was influenced, till within a few months back, to encourage the idle and profligate Calmucks and Gypſies, rather than laborious and moral proteſtants. This mode may be termed, with a good deal of propriety, a deſtruction of the national character, without improving the external circumſtances of the people.
It is now well known, and the example of the Engliſh fully proves it, that the only way out of barbariſm is through real religion. Judge then what it muſt be to tread this road backwards, and to ſubſtitute the ſuper⯑ſtitious ſpirit of monkery, for the mild, and induſtrious ſpirit of proteſtantiſm. It is ſtrange to relate, that the late emperor, Joſeph II. gave ſanction to this, and or⯑dered its execution, at the very time when he was en⯑deavouring [296] to curb the power of the prieſts, by diſ⯑mantling their religious retirements, both convents and monaſteries, in various parts of the German empire, and forming ſuch eſtabliſhments of education, as muſt ulti⯑mately lead to proteſtant principles.
The Greek prieſts, in Hungary arid Illyria, are exactly in the ſame ſtate of ignorance and ſemi-barbariſm as the Roman-catholic prieſts were, in the reign of Charlemagne the Great, who laid the firſt foundation for national im⯑provement, and firſt began with an illumination of the prieſthood by knowledge and poliſh.
There are, at this time, ſays Ricſbec, many of the ſpi⯑ritual paſtors of the Greek church, who know not how to read tolerably; and to write, or calculate, is above their knowledge: for, if engaged in any manner where numbers are requiſite, their fingers ſerve as a tally.
One of theſe pious ſhepherds of ſouls, continues the ſame author, a Macedonian by birth, who valued him⯑ſelf much on his claſſical erudition of the Greek, and the reputation of his countryman, Alexander the Great, took it into his head to inſtruct a young gentleman in the hiſtory of the Trojan war. He ſaid that a prince of the Trojans having run away with a French princeſs, the Greek, and Roman emperors, the king of France, and the ſeven Electors, went to Troy, and took the city, after an aſtoniſhing long ſiege, by means of a wooden [297] horſe, filled with armed men. Notwithſtanding their groſs ignorance, yet theſe prieſts are the idols of the ſtill more ignorant congregations. The catholic prieſts who live at any diſtance from the large towns are little behind the Greeks in being illiterate and vulgar in manners. Their whole library conſiſts of their breviary, and the only thing they ſtudy is the Latin language.
The public ſeminaries, or univerſities for cultivating literature, are thoſe of Firnan, Buda, Raab and Caſ⯑cham. All the profeſſors are Jeſuits; ſo that the Luthe⯑rans, Calviniſts, and other Proteſtants are obliged to go to the German colleges to complete their academical ſtudies.
Notwithſtanding the Hungarians do not want parts, yet it is obſerved that this country produces but few learned men. The only reaſon that can be aſſigned for this, is the poverty of the knowledge of the profeſſors, who neither improve in the ſciences themſelves, nor ad⯑mit thoſe from other countries, who are adequate to the taſk, to become public members.
The church, by law eſtabliſhed, is governed by two archbiſhops and nine biſhops. The archbiſhop of Gran, is primate of all Hungary, and chief ſecretary and chan⯑cellor, Legatus natus of the papal ſee, and prince of the Holy Roman empire. He alone crowns the king, and is a perpetual count in right of his ſpiritual dignity. He [298] can create peers, confer titles and orders of knighthood, &c. Next to him is the archbiſhop of Kolacza, who has eight ſuffragans. The biſhops are of a double cha⯑racter and are temporal lords as well as ſpiritual ones.
The abbots are ten in number, and have voices in the eſtates of the kingdom, and are reckoned after the bi⯑ſhops in precedency.
The ſpiritual courts appointed for the diſcuſſion of ec⯑cleſiaſtical affairs, are held in every dioceſe and chapter, but with a power of appealing to the archbiſhop, and afterwards to the pope's legate; and may at laſt be car⯑ried to the papal court at Rome.
The pure language of the Huns, reſembles that of the Hebrew, as it is wholly governed by points and accents. But Buſ [...]ing ſays that it is really a dialect of the ancient Scythia, without the leaſt affinity to any of the European tongues and of one unvaried dialect.
In writing, the Hungarians uſe the Roman characters; the Germans have their different dialects, according to their nations which are ſettled here. There are alſo dia⯑lects of the Sclavonian and Wallachian tongues uſed here. The Latin is not only ſpoken by the literati and gentry, but alſo by the commonality; however the latter are not very correct, yet it may be ſaid that the ancient Roman [299] language is ſtill a living one in Hungary, though dead to all the world beſides.
Were ſyſtems of religion not ſhackled with penalties by Roman-catholic princes, it is certain the ſunſhine of ſcience, would chaſe away the vapours of ſuperſtition and groſs ignorance, which carry ſuch abſurd, and fre⯑quently fantaſtic characters on the face of them, that more poliſhed nations with great reaſon laugh at. Can the minds of men be confined to any particular mode of thinking; or ſhall their ideas be reducible to any pecu⯑liar form? Surely every moral agent who is poſſeſſed of common underſtanding and impreſſed by the laws of ci⯑vil ſociety will readily acquieſce in the happy plan of univerſal toleration. Britain has been long famed for this excellent rule of faith, and leaves open her church doors for all who are willing to come in, and alſo to ac⯑commodate thoſe that go out of her pales; for certain it is, free privilege gives life to the name of a chriſtian, and a body to the eſtabliſhed church of this our favored land, and all its dependencies.
It appears from the writings of the beſt modern au⯑thors, that this crown has been ſometimes hereditary, and at others elective. That ſometimes their princes have acted arbitrarily, and at others been limited and reſtrained by the ſtates. That there have been innu⯑merable ſtruggles between the crown and the ſtates. The former for exerciſe of prerogative and the latter for li⯑miting [300] the ſovereign power. In hiſtory it is ſurprizing to find ſo many kings depoſed or murdered either by factious ſubjects or ambitious rivals. And as their kings could not by their conſtitution legally oppreſs their ſub⯑jects and invade their properties, therefore regicide was leſs pardonable here than in any other nation in chriſtendom.
If the people indeed are veſted with the ſupreme pow⯑er, and the kings are but their officers and accountable to them, they will have ſome pretence for reſiſting and dethroning them, when they act contrary to the good of the community: and may without imputation of pari⯑cide do juſtice upon them, in the language of our regi⯑cides, with Oliver Cromwell at their head, ‘that the reſt of the kings of the earth may hear and fear, and do no more, ſo wickedly.’ But as our republicans go upon that miſtake, that kings can have no legal au⯑thority, but what is conferred on them by the ma⯑jority of the people, their princes are always ac⯑countable to the majority of the people. And ſince there is ſcarce any inſtance in the world that the majority of the people (the multitude) were ever conſulted in the election of a monarch or ſupreme magiſtrate, their fan⯑cied power over their monarchs muſt be a mere chimera.
The elegant pamphlet lately publiſhed by the Right Hon. Edmund Burke, M. P. relative to the divine right of kings, proclaims a new ſort of doctrine as far as it [301] touches on the authority and unlimited controul of potentates: which gives a new ſpecies of reaſoning far beyond any thing we have had the peruſal of for many years, and in ſeveral particulars may be ſaid to be truly original. This author, in diſcuſſing the political criſis of France, endeavours to overturn the new modelled conſtitution of that country, merely becauſe the govern⯑ment of it has aſſigned the king but a nominal ſituation inſtead of the unbounded field of prerogative he for⯑merly partook of.
This curious addreſs would be more applicable when we come to ſpeak of France; but a ſhort abſtract of its leading features, we preſume, will here be conſonant to the ſubject.—‘Notwithſtanding the ſpecious pretences of maintaining the people's rights and privileges by attempts upon the throne, as if they had, jure divino, an unalienable, and a feazible right to call their ſovereign to account; depoſe, and condemn him as their wiſdoms conceive to be the criterion to promote the public good: for, ſhould it be admitted that they have ſuch an authority, ſurely it is equally perceptible to an enlightened mind how inadequate the major part of mankind are to a diſcri⯑mination of the upright acts of their prince? Ambi⯑tion is at the botton of theſe combinations, and only flatters the public with the notion of their unbounded right to make and un-make kings: till, by their aſ⯑ſiſtance, the new modellers have got the reigns of [302] government; and then theſe noble patriots commonly laugh at the many-headed beaſt that has advanced them, leaving the people to labour under greater dif⯑ficulties than they did before; or, perhaps, loading them with inſupportable taxes to maintain their own poſſeſſion, pretending, that their eſtabliſhment and the people's happineſs are inſeparable.’ Here we leave the digreſſion; and, in the genuine ſpirit of the author's reaſoning, cannot but concur; yet at the ſame time we muſt obſerve, much may be ſaid on both ſides the queſtion, as circumſtances may tend to vary right and wrong very materially.
But on all hands it muſt be acknowledged, that no nation has ever ſuffered more in theſe ſtruggles between the crown and the ſtates than the Hungarians; for, while one ſide called in the emperor, the other called in the grand ſignor, to their aſſiſtance, and made the coun⯑try a ſcene of wars and blood-ſhed for upwards of 200 years together; till, in the end, the German emperor has become maſter of the country, and has driven the Turks entirely out of Hungary, and reduced it to the form of a province. They have contended with their princes about their rights and privileges, till the Impe⯑rial eagle has decided the controverſy by devouring both, and left them only the ſhadow of their ancient conſtitu⯑tion.
[303]The ceremony of the coronation of the kings of Hun⯑gary is attended with rather curious formulae.—The ge⯑neral aſſembly of the ſtates appoint a place, uſually Preſburg, or Buda. Here the biſhops, the nobility, and the repreſentatives of the ſeveral countries and cities unanimouſly approve of the new monarch, who is al⯑ways the next in ſucceſſion, notwithſtanding the neceſ⯑ſary form of election previous to his being crowned. Then the palatinate (whoſe office we ſhall preſently de⯑ſcribe) demands, with a loud voice, three times, whe⯑ther the aſſembly approves of the new elected king? And, having expreſſed their conſent by loud acclama⯑tions, he delivers a naked ſword into the king's hand, which the ſovereign brandiſhes E. W. N. and S. After which he is attended by the ſtates to the great Cathedral church, where, the arch-biſhop of Gran, holding the regal robes in his hand, again demands of the people, whether they are ſatisfied with the king elect, and are willing to become his ſubjects? And, on receiving an anſwer in the affirmative, he proceeds to perform the uſual rites obſerved at the coronation of their kings; after which, the prelates and nobility carry the arms and reliques of king Stephen I. before the new king, in a ſplendid proceſſion, to the palace.
The crown of Stephen I. is ſtill preſerved at Preſburg with great veneration, if not ſuperſtition; and no prince is allowed to be duly crowned with another crown. The Roman-catholics do not heſitate to declare openly that [304] the fate of the nation depends on the careful preſervation of it; and in all their calamities took great care to pre⯑ſerve it in a place of ſafety. The legend of this crown runs thus. When Stephen I. began to propagate the chriſtian religion in his dominions, he ſent a truſty per⯑ſon to pope Benedict VII. deſiring his holineſs to confirm him in his kingdom, and ſend him a crown, and other regal ornaments. Myſcha, duke of Poland, having ſent an embaſſy to Rome at this time, on the ſame account, and a crown being provided for him: but, an angel appearing to the pope, the night before it was to be ſent away, deſired, that the crown deſigned for the Pole, ſhould be ſent to Stephen, which was done accordingly. The catholic Hungarians believe this tradition equally with any article of their faith, and give this antique relique almoſt divine adoration.
The perſon of greateſt authority, next to the king, is the palatine, or guardian of the kingdom, and is elected by the ſtates. This officer has the firſt voice in the election of a king, and is always the guardian to the in⯑fant princes of the blood, and has authority to aſſemble the ſtates during an inter-regnum, and adminiſter juſtice in every particular, the ſame as the monarch himſelf.
The fate of the new edition of the bible in the Hun⯑garian language, is a recent proof of the bigotry of the eſtabliſhed religion of this country. In the confuſions of the late wars, and by other calamities, bibles were [305] grown ſo ſcarce, that many communities had not above one, or two at moſt. Upon this, ſeveral of the moſt opulent of the ſocieties of Proteſtants apprehending that this ſcarcity of the word of God would neceſſarily be at⯑tended with the total abolition of true chriſtianity, ge⯑nerouſly undertook to publiſh a new edition.
The work was printed in Holland; new types were caſt; and perſons well qualified were ſent to ſuper-intend the preſs. Every thing went on proſperouſly, ſo that the impreſſion was happily finiſhed both with accuracy and beauty: and the only difficulty remaining was, how to convey the copies to Hungary before the Roman-catholics ſhould by falſe repreſentations influence the Emperor to prohibit their importation.
The uſual application was made to court for a royal licence, which was readily granted, but the Jeſuits party found means to ingratiate themſelves with ſome of the leading men of the Romiſh religion, ſo that the books were not permitted to come within the territories of the kingdom, under a wicked ſuggeſtion that it was an er⯑roneous tranſlation. By this falſe aſſertion the bibles were only ſuffered to reach the city of Dantzic, where many of them are to be found at the preſent period.
Since the demiſe of Joſeph II. the archbiſhop of Gran hath ſummoned the clergy of Hungary in the Roman-catholic intereſt, and in convocation have deliberated [306] on a requiſition to the new king Leopold, the preſent Emperor of Germany, in which they concluſively ad⯑dreſſed the throne very uncharitably, making it an act which ſhould carry the penalty of death with it, as well as forfeiture of temporalities to any one who ſhould em⯑brace the proteſtant religion. And again endeavored to revive the frend-like ſpirit of perſecution with all its con⯑comitant train of cruelties; but the mildneſs of the mo⯑narch ſtemmed the torrent of theſe zealots, and in a ſtile becoming the dignity of a Leopold; his Imperial ma⯑jeſty tempered the ſharpneſs of the religious votaries.
What a miſtaken notion is it in the breaſt of man, to conceive that the God of all purity, peace, and mercy, ſhould be honoured by the cruel butcheries of his crea⯑tures, merely becauſe their notions of outward forms, or inward ſyſtems, were not exactly the ſame with thoſe of ſome peculiar mode of their king! Is the outward trappings of woe a proof of the internal ſorrow? Or is the ſhape and air of the man, a token of his truth or falſe⯑hood? Certainly none of theſe things carry evidence ſuf⯑ficient to take it for granted, that truths are appendages that may be taken concluſively, as matters of fact. For the contrary frequently proves the inſufficiency of all human ſyſtems to arrange the works of providence, and much leſs to attempt a regulation of the ſtate of ſpi⯑ritual communion with the Creator.
[307]In the ear of a moderate Proteſtant, how unharmonious muſt it grate, when he is told that the holy office of the inquiſition condemns not only the unhappy victims of their cruelty and malice to the flames, but alſo aſſigns them over to a particular ſpecies of torment, in a world of miſerable ſpirits.
If this mode of ſerving the Deity can be reconciled to the gentle aſpect of the goſpel, where ſaith muſt accom⯑pany good works, and charity be cloathed with mercy, and an univerſal benevolence, not only to do good to our friends, but alſo to our enemies, and even to pray for their happineſs both here, and hereafter; what is the office of Catholic love?
CHAP. V. Of Government, Army Eſtabliſhment, and Laws.
[308]THE king of Hungary is ſtiled Catholic, to which is added the title of Apoſtolic, on account of the zeal, which Stephen I. ſhewed in the converſion of the king. The regalia, namely the golden crown, made in the eleventh century, the ſceptre, ſword, mantle, and ſhoes; with the ſilver croſs, the mark of the Apoſtolic function are kept in the caſtle of Preſburg, and uſed al⯑ways at the coronation of all the kings ſince the above period.
The ſtates are divided into four claſſes, which, in the laws of the land, are called collectively, The People. The firſt, are the prelates, who have the direction of religious matters, and have precedence of all others, except the governor of the kingdom. The ſecond claſs is called the great barons of the kingdom, and officers of the court, according to their precedency, and the counts and inferior barons. The third are ſtiled gen⯑try; and the fourth are citizens and burgeſſes.
The king, and theſe ſtates, through the channels of the diet, royal councils, exchequer and ſenates of towns, govern the kingdom. The diet is ſummoned every three years, for the diſpatch of public buſineſs.
[309]Juſtice is adminiſtered in civil affairs, in the king's name, after the manner preſcribed by the laws and cuſ⯑toms of the kingdom. In the royal free cities, the firſt hearing is before the judge of the town; and the ſecond before the council, from which they may appeal to the treaſurer.
The mine-towns have a court peculiar to themſelves, and all diſputes between the nobility and their vaſſals may be removed, by writ of error, to the grand court of the archbiſhop of Gran.
In public affairs, we may reduce their conſtitution and law to ſimilar ſituations in our own government. Their diet, like our parliament, is a ſort of check on the regal power of the prince. The Hungary office, which is eſtabliſhed at Vienna, reſembles our chancery. The ſtadholder's council anſwers pretty much to a Britiſh privy council. The Gaſpan chafts are like our juſtices of the peace.
In criminal matters, the judge of the town is, with his council, fully authorized to exerciſe his power, and life and death are in his hands; but few caſes, except thoſe of murder, witch-craft, or here [...]y, are puniſhed with death; the reſt of our catalogue the Hungarians conſider a temporary puniſhment to be adequate to the commiſſion of the crime. And theſe exactions are gene⯑rally confined to money, or articles of uſe and value.
[301]The military ſtrength of this kingdom is aſcertained to be 50,000 Hungarians, but the Emperor ſeldom draws out more than 10,000; and theſe generally are light-horſe, and are well known to modern times by the name of Huſſars. They are not near ſo large as the German horſe, and therefore ſtand on their tip-toes in the ſtirrups when they ſtrike.
Their expedition and alertneſs have been found ſo ſer⯑viceable in war, that the greateſt powers in Europe have troops that go by the ſame name. Their foot are called heydukes, and wear feathers in their caps accord⯑ing to the number of enemies they pretend to have killed. Both horſe and foot are very good at ravaging and plundering an enemy's country, but not equal to regular troops in a pitched battle: however, they make together an excellent national militia.
It is remarkable enough, that, whilſt in imitation of the Hungarian ſoldiers, the Huſſar has become an eſſential part of the Pruſſian army, and has alſo been received into the French regular troops, the true ori⯑ginal is lo [...] in his own country. Not one of the 14 or 15 regiments of Huſſars, in the Emperor's ſervice, is made up entirely of Hungarians. Experienced officers have, it ſeems, thought ſuch regiments could no longer be of any ſervice; it may be ſo, but it is certain that the Hungarians have loſt their ſpirit by their diſcipline: for, like other wild men, they deteſt the artificial arms, [311] againſt which their ſtrength and courage are of no avail; and, if ever they ſhow themſelves in their native fierce⯑neſs, it is only when the firing is over, and they come to cloſe engagement: then each oppoſes himſelf to the armed enemy. Here, indeed, the hero ſometimes ſtarts out again.
A whole army of theſe men drawn up in battle array, unpowdered from the general to the common ſoldier; half their faces covered with long whiſkers; a ſort of round beaver upon their heads inſtead of hats; without ruffles or frills to their ſhirts: all clad in rough ſkins; monſtrous crooked ſabres ready drawn and uplifted; their eyes darting flaſhes of rage ſharper than the beams of the naked ſabre, would be ſufficient to diſmay the hardieſt troops, and terrify even veterans. But now the poliſhed face of war, puts on a more elegant appearance, and the rough terrors of the warrior are allayed by the be⯑coming habit of faſhion; the military man knows his ſeaſon of changes to the mode of times, as well as the fop of the day.
The Engliſh plan is of all others the moſt ſound and well adapted to national policy; their principles is to keep up the ſpirit of the troops, from an idea that the intereſts of government are the ſame as thoſe of the people, and that they have nothing to fear from a muti⯑ny. Upon this ground honeſt John Bull reduces his [312] people to a common ſtandard, namely, to defend liberty and property generally, as well as particularly.
There cannot be a doubt but in obedient and ſtrong ſubordination, the principal ſtrength of an army con⯑ſiſts; but it is impoſſible to unite them with an idea of feeling for ſelf, in the ſubaltern and underling. Can ſentiments of perſonal honour, bravery, and patriotiſm be prejudicial to an army? Surely every ſenſible man will anſwer in the negative. And were it only to meliorate the condition of the poor ſoldier; were it only to make his hard fate leſs ſevere, it ſhould be the policy of prin⯑ces to promote thoſe feelings which can ſweeten ſo many bitter hours, and alone enable them to meet death.
The Hungarians in general are extremely proper for a military life; they want nothing to be perfect ſoldiers, but a kind of education which good government might give them. The Croats particularly have all the requi⯑ſites for ſervice. Their uſual height is ſix feet; they are boney, fleſhy, quick and lively, and can bear the extremes of cold and hunger. In a word, there are no better made men in Europe, notwithſtanding which they are the moſt miſerable part of the Imperial army; a ſure ſign that government either neglects them, or does not know how to diſcipline them properly.
Sometimes it has been propoſed to incorporate them with other corps, but this would be only to take away [313] their natural advantages, and furniſh them with arti⯑ficial ones in their ſtead. Such a change would put an end to their uſual way of life, to which they are in⯑debted for their hardineſs. They commonly dwell ſix or ſeven under the ſame roof. As their frugality enables them to bring up many children, they marry early, in the vigour of their youth, and their children are the produce of their unimpaired manhood.
Their juices are ſtill uncorrupt, and the deſtructive diſtempers which poiſon the ſources of life, are not yet introduced amongſt them. The patriarchical go⯑vernment ſtill ſubſiſts here, and the grandfather who has grown old amidſt his children and grand-children, ſtill retains an authority over them. As by this means their manners are preſerved, uncorrupted, and un⯑contaminated with any ſpecies of vice; nothing more is requiſite than to humanize their prieſts; this would render them good ſubjects to the ſtate without com⯑merce, manufactures, or arts, which the emperor Joſeph II. lately endeavored to introduce amongſt them, and which muſt be allowed was not to their advan⯑tage.
An education more ſuitable to the nature of their country, and their peculiar conſtitution would by de⯑grees deprive them of their native ferocity; and they would become the more tractable, in proportion as they acquired better notions of religion and agriculture. [314] Their uncouth manners, the natural conſequence of their barbarity, is the true reaſon why they are ſo averſe to diſcipline; and the only way of getting the better of this, and making them like the other ſubjects of the houſ [...] of Auſtria, fit for military ſervice, is do⯑meſtic education: this alone can bring them out of their barbarity, without depriving them of their other advantages.
Were the Hungarians to be removed from their own prejudices in a military capacity, the cure might probably be worſe than the diſeaſe, to effect which, no alternative beſide that of incorporating them with other troops remains. Suppoſing this was to be ef⯑fected, and to make ſlaves of them in the beſt years of their lives and when the voice of nature crieth moſt aloud, what would be the conſequence? Accuſtomed to all their vices, I mean thoſe of a ſtanding army, they would conſume the vigour of their lives in per⯑nicious indulgencies; they would return to their na⯑tive country corrupted with a variety of wants they did not know before.
Having acquired a taſte for pleaſes of forbidden love, they would either not marry [...] all, or marry later than their anceſtors; all the [...] domeſtic ordi [...]ances would be aboliſhed, nor w [...]ld their wives be any longer diſtinguiſhed for th [...] [...]haſtity. Their children would imitate them i [...] their vices; and the conſe⯑quence [315] of all would be, that in the ſecond generation, one would be hardly able to diſtinguiſh them; and in the third, or at moſt the fourth, not know them at all from the other ſubjects of the empire; ſo totally would they have loſt the ſize, ſtrength, frugality and fine form which now ſo eminently diſtinguiſh them.
To attempt any change that may be propoſed would be taking a dangerous leap from barbarous to civil life, and all that could be expected from it, would be a broken limb, if not a broken neck.
Thus to attempt pruning or lopping off the exu⯑berant branches which ſpring from the ſtock of na⯑ture, would reduce the ſubject to leſs than half its priſtine vigour, ſerving no other purpoſe than that of degenerating the noble acquiſition of inbred virtues of hereditary poſſeſſion, to the frailties of an artificial form, to ſerve no good purpoſe whatever, nor indulge any other paſſion than that of caprice: and then view the reduction of the noble ſtructure in its ruins, with⯑out being ever able to erect the edifice, ſo as to anſwer the end which the native Hungarian, in his preſent uncultivated ſtate, happily fulfils in the moſt unlimited ſenſe of the word.
This nation was formerly remarkable for its coin⯑age, as the cabinets of the curious in all countries clearly ſhew. Even medals of the exacteſt arrange⯑ment [316] have been produced here, in a hiſtorical ſeries which ſhew the regularity of this kingdom in former times.
The emperor as king of Hungary for armorial en⯑ſigns, bears quarterly barwiſe argent, and gules of eight pieces.
CHAP. VI. BELGRADE.
[317]BELGRADE, Alba-Graecorum, or Greek Weiſ⯑ſenburg, having been recently the ſeat of war, in the Turkiſh dominions, and before whoſe walls ſo many Imperialiſts have fallen, it muſt be a gratifi⯑cation to the reader, altho' an innovation in the regu⯑larity of our plan, to introduce it here; ſo ſans cere⯑monie, we ſhall give a minute deſcription of this cele⯑brated fortreſs, which at this period is a topic of con⯑verſation in every polite circle.
The city and important fortreſs of Belgrade, is ſitu⯑ate at the conflux of the rivers Save and Danube, and conſiſts of three parts, of which one is the citadel, erected on an eminence in the middle of the city.
It is the capital of the province of Servia, or Raſcia, and, previous to the late ſiege, it was conſidered as a ſtrong, populous trading city. It was formerly ac⯑counted the barrier and key of Hungary, to which it was at firſt annexed by the German emperor in 1440, but beſieged and taken by the Turks in 1521, and till 1688, it remained in their poſſeſſion, when the Huns again became maſters of it; and in 1739, it [318] was ceded to the Turks, who have ſince been the poſſeſſors of it, till taken by the Imperialiſts in the late war.
This city lies in latitude 45 deg. 10 min. N. and longitude 21 deg. 2 min. E. The many viciſſitudes of fortune which it has experienced, induces us to give a brief account of ſome of them. Solyman the Magnificent laid ſiege to it in 1521, as before obſerv⯑ed, and it was retaken by the Imperialiſts in 1686, un⯑der the conduct of the duke of Bavaria. The Turks laid ſiege again to it in the year 1688, and the maga⯑zine of the town being blown up by one of the ene⯑my's bombs, with part of the walls, the Turks then took it by ſtorm, and put all the garriſon to the ſword, conſiſting of upwards of 6000 men, except the governor and about 300 ſoldiers, who eſcaped out of one of the gates, while the enemy was buſy in plundering the town.
About the beginning of June 1717, the Imperial⯑iſts under the command of Prince Eugene of Savoy, inveſted Belgrade again, and the place being of the laſt importance to the Turks, the grand vizir was commanded to relieve it at all hazards, which he at⯑tempted to do in Auguſt following. This brought on a general engagement, wherein the Imperial troops obtained a complete victory.
[319]It is remarked by the ableſt hiſtorians that there never were ſo many Ottomans in the field at one time, as at this memorable battle. The fire was well ſuſ⯑tained on the part of the Turks; and from the num⯑ber of the killed and wounded, it ſtands on record to be the moſt bloody of any battle that ever was fought between infidels and chriſtians.
The Turks loſt about 150 pieces of cannon, 50 mortars, and their whole camp: and what is worthy of remark, the Imperialiſts did not enter the enemy's camp to plunder till the general gave permiſſion, nor till the whole army was rallied and put in order.
The loſs of this battle was attended with the ſur⯑render of Belgrade, which capitulated two days after⯑wards. It was computed on a moderate calculation, that there were not leſs than 80,000 Mahometans within the walls of Belgrade, amongſt which near 30,000 were ſoldiers: and by an exact liſt of the artillery taken in the town and in the battle, that it conſiſted of 480 pieces of braſs cannon, 250 of iron, and 109 braſs mortars. From all of which, the reader may readily conceive what a large and important city this muſt at that time have been.
We need not give any further hiſtory of the ſieges of this place, having already obſerved that it fell to the Turks in 1739. The Hungarians were then [320] obliged to evacuate it, though not before they had demoliſhed its outworks, leaving nothing ſtanding but its old walls, and ſome fortifications inſeparable from them. The two caſtles hereafter deſcribed, were built ſince that period.
The horrors of a ſiege are eaſier conceived than de⯑ſcribed. The dire neceſſities of war, obliges the con⯑tending parties to the exerciſe of their inventive facul⯑ties to form ſchemes of deſtruction by all poſſible modes of artifice, ſo as to weaken the oppoſing power. Every hour is applied to havock, devaſtation and car⯑nage. Death ſtalks abroad in all ſhapes. The pin⯑ing citizen though in no wiſe buſied in the ſcenes of war, but active to remove his merchandize to ſubter⯑raneous ſtores; on his return perhaps beholds his dwel⯑ling blazing fiercely by the hoſtile heated ball that falls within its attic ſtory. His family, all in tears, la⯑ment not for the conflagrating ſcene, but in ſobbing accents grieve for the untimely fate of the hapleſs mo⯑ther of the mourning children. Now mark the dan⯑gers that await the whole; a deadly ſhot bereaves the group of life of hope and care, and mingles them with the flying duſt or filthy earth unpitied and without no⯑tice of their fate! Thus war levels all diſtinctions, in age, ſex, and rank. All are liable to the call of fate.
[321]By the elegant perſpective view of the city which we have with great pains procured, the reader may perceive that the Save, which is a large river, runs on the weſt ſide of the city, and the great river the Da⯑nube on the north ſide.
The Danube is very broad here, and its current ſo rapid that it ſeems to cut off that of the Save; juſt as the Rhone does that of the Seine, near Lyons, in France.—The water of the Danube ſeems to be yel⯑low and troubled, and that of the Save greeniſh and clear. At the mouth of the Save is an iſle made there of the ſettling of the ſands of both ſtreams, and is now covered over with a kind of a wood.
On the entrance into the town is the water caſtle, which is a ſtrong piece of fortification, well con⯑ſtructed for defence; and on a further entrance is the upper caſtle, which is flanked with divers towns, and forms an irregular fortification of great ſtrength alſo.
The chiefeſt trading ſtreets are covered with a ſort of pent-houſes, to keep off the ſun and rain. The ſhops are no bigger than taylors' ſhopboards, and very low, the ſhop-keepers ſitting in them as our taylors do, croſs-legged, which have a ſingular appearance to an inhabitant of any of the Chriſtian ſtates of this quarter of the globe.
[322]The chapmen or buyers never enter into theſe little ſhops or ſtalls, but view the goods at the door, and make their la [...]ga [...]s under the cover of the projecting pe [...]hou [...]s. But beſides theſe, there are two large bezaſtans, or places where the beſt commodities are ſold; they are built in the form of a croſs, like the old cathedrals, with walks within like the Royal Ex⯑change at London.
They have two exchanges for merchandize, which are ſolely occupied by wholeſale venders; theſe build⯑ings are elegantly erected on two rows of pilars, the one over the other.
The Turks have built ſince their laſt poſſeſſion of the town, a very ſtately caravanſe [...] or the entertain⯑ment of poor travellers of the Muſſelmen; it has a noble fountain, and a ſpacious court, at the top of which is a grand moſque. To this is annexed, a kind of a college for ſtudents in the Mahometan di⯑vinity. Theſe ſtudents, as well as the heads of the ſeminary, wear green gowns and ſquare caps, differing little in the forms of dreſs from our univerſities of Oxford and Cambridge.
The ſepulchres for the dead are all very properly without the town, a practice highly commendable in all large cities, as the contaminated air, which re⯑ceives its infection from the putrefaction of the dead, [323] is, in its nature, very prejudicial to the living; for the ſaline particles of the efiluviae are obſerved by every one who walks out, either at an early hour in the morning, or in the cool approach of night.
But, it is to be obſerved, that the trading people and merchants are confined very nearly to the ſect of Ar⯑menians, which are very numerous, and have the privilege of a large church for public worſhip here. Indeed their dealings are far more impartial and fair than either the Greeks or Jews.
The ſituation of Belgrade makes it a place of ex⯑tenſive trade, being ſo well furniſhed with water con⯑veyances. For the navigable river Teyſe falls into the Danube, near the town; and the Drave and the Meriſh are alſo diſembogued into the Danube, a little below the fortreſs. All which advantages contri⯑bute not a little to the traffic of this place. Added to which, the adjacent country thro' which theſe rivers paſs, particularly the Danube in its fall towards the Euxine ſea, is ſo fruitful and well ſupplied with every production of nature, that theſe advantages are ſufficient to make it one of the moſt flouriſhing cities in Europe, was it in the poſſeſſion of ſuch an induſ⯑trious nation as the Engliſh or Dutch: but whilſt it remains in the hands of the Turks, it will never exceed its preſent ſtate, of being far below its meridian.
[324]This city was formerly the main bulwark of Hun⯑gary, which has ſeveral times ſtemmed the torrent of the Turkiſh victories, even Mahomet the Great, and all his numerous forces.
It is a remarkable Epocha, in 1521, when Maho⯑met appeared upon the Danube near this city with 200 gallies, and other armed veſſels, which were ſo ſmartly engaged by the Chriſtian ſleet, that beſides what was taken, the Turks were forced to ſet their own veſſels on fire, to prevent them from falling into the hands of the Chriſtians.
Though the diſtance from Belgrade to Vienna is about 400 miles, yet it is one continued plain, without a hill or foreſt, ſo that it ſeems to be a poſt deſigned by nature, of the utmoſt importance to the houſe of Auſtria. It is about the ſame diſtance from Conſtan⯑tinople, but by no means ſo eaſily approached to from thence, as from Vienna. Indeed the Germanic court, ſhould exert itſelf to retain the poſſeſſion of this key of the empire. For by it the trade of Hungary, Bo⯑hemia, and Germany, with all their dependancies might be conſiderably increaſed.
This great fortreſs was with the loſs of ſeveral thou⯑ſands of the flower of the Auſtrian troops beſieged for nearly two years by the late emperor, Joſeph II, and at length taken; but not before a loſs of at leaſt 50,000 [325] men, by peſtilence and extreme hardſhips, owing to the ſeverity of the different ſeaſons, in which the Im⯑perialiſts were before the walls: it may therefore with confidence be ſaid that this ancient city coſt the vic⯑tors an effuſion of blood; for though the Turks, who were in poſſeſſion of the town, made a vigorous re⯑ſiſtance, yet the troops that fell by the fortune of war, in actual ſervice were few, when compared with thoſe that fell victims to the ſickneſs that raged in the camp; for the fatigues which Joſeph II. ſuffered, were ſo exceſſive, that the colds he contracted in the raining ſeaſon, and the night air, were the cauſes of his ſevere illneſs, which at laſt terminated in a painful death.
We ſhall not animadvert on the conduct of the deceaſed emperor, further than to ſay, that he acted his part before this town with extreme heat, and at one time, great duplicity, by which means the poor inhabitants of the Greek and Armenian churches, were cut to pieces by the enraged Turks, as they falſely ſuppoſed, thoſe Chriſtian citizens had a deſign to betray them into the hands of the Auſ⯑rians.
This maſſacre will caſt a gloom over the memory of a potentate, who under pretence of a flag of truce, could be ſo mean as to endeavor to deceive the gover⯑nor, [326] and take the place by ſurprize; but in this point he was himſelf deceived, and the Chriſtians butchered through his treachery.
By the late treaty with the Turks, the Auſtrians have conſented to abandon this garriſon, but not before the walls are eraſed, and the fortifications utterly de⯑ſtroyed: ſo that it will in future, in all probabi⯑lity, be reckoned a frontier city of the Turks, and a mart for European and Aſiatic goods. But, be this as it may, it will always be ſubject to the in⯑roads of the Imperial ſubjects, in caſe of a war with the Porte.
Indeed the only advantages which the Turks reap from this place, is to keep the Hungarians and Bohe⯑mians from making incurſions into the Turkiſh do⯑minions, and protecting their trade on the Danube: as almoſt the whole of the merchants, as was before obſerved, of Belgrade, have always been Chriſtians and Jews, therefore the Mahometans could not be ſaid to be the principal gainers by the trade of this great city.
Before we diſmiſs this article, we cannot help ob⯑ſerving, that were the Germans or Hungarians, a maritime people, this ſituation would be highly be⯑neficial to them; but as they are too much like the Turks in point of indolence, the city of Belgrade will [327] derive but little benefit from the maſters of it, whe⯑ther Turks or Germans.